Native American Oral Tradition The Origins of Literature

Native American Oral Tradition

The Origins of Literature n n n The origin of what we call American literature predates the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. Oral tradition is the foundation of literature Early rock carvings and petroglyphs are perhaps the first examples of written language

Newspaper Rock (UT)

Newspaper Rock (UT) petroglyphs

“A Storyteller and His Art” N. Scott Momaday n n n “We have no being beyond our stories. ” “Our stories explain us, justify us, sustain us, humble us, and forgive us. And sometimes they injure and destroy us. ” “Perhaps the greatest stories are those which disturb us, which shake us from our complacency, which threaten our well-being. ”

Stories & Storytelling n n “Make no mistake, we are at risk in the presence of words. ” “We are shaken and soothed in turn by stories. ” “…the central function of storytelling is to reflect the forces, within and without us, that govern our lives, both good and bad. ” “Stories are pools of reflection in which we see ourselves through the prism of the imagination. ” -from “A Storyteller and His Art” – N. Scott Momaday

“The belief that words in themselves have the power to make things happen —especially words in extraordinary combinations—is one of the distinguishing features of native American thought; and it may be said that for the people who share this belief a connection exists between the sacred and the verbal, or to put it in more familiar terms, a connection between religion and poetry. ” - John Bierhorst, The Sacred Path

The Oral Tradition Words are powerful n Words are sacred n Words are magical: they can bring about physical change in the world n

The Oral Tradition Words must be spoken with great care n The speaker must be careful, clear & deliberate, for he will be taken at his word n There is a connection between the sacred & the verbal; to be careless in the presence of words is to violate a fundamental morality n

Three Stories The Arrowmaker The Kiowa Brothers The Death of Chief Sitting Bear

The Arrowmaker If an arrow is well made, it will have tooth marks upon it. That is how you know. The Kiowas made fine arrows and straightened them in their teeth. Then they drew them to the bow to see if they were straight. Once there was a man and his wife. They were alone at night in their tipi. By the light of the fire the man was making arrows. After a while he caught sight of something. There was a small opening in the tipi where two hides were sewn together. Someone was there on the outside, looking in. The man went on with his work, but he said to his wife: “Someone is standing outside. Do not be afraid. Let us talk easily, as of ordinary things. ” He took up an arrow and straightened it in his teeth; then, as it was right for him to do, he drew it to the bow and took aim, first in this direction and then in that. And all the while he was talking, as if to his wife. But this is how he spoke: “I know that you are there on the outside, for I can feel your eyes upon me. If you are a Kiowa, you will understand what I am saying, and you will speak your name. ” But there was no answer, and the man went on in the same way, pointing the arrow all around. At last his aim fell upon the place where his enemy stood, and he let go of the string. The arrow went straight to the enemy’s heart. From The Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday. University of New Mexico Press, 1969.

The Arrowmaker n n n The Arrowmaker and his wife survive not because of the arrow but rather because of language and words. He is “a man made of words” – his survival is contingent on his knowledge of language and his enemy’s lack of knowledge. The story illustrates the importance and power of language in the oral tradition.

The Kiowa Brothers On a raid against the Utes, one of two brothers was captured. The other, alone and of his own will, stole into the Ute camp and tried to set his brother free, but he too was captured. The chief of the Utes had respect for the man’s bravery, and he made a bargain with him. If he could carry his brother on his back and walk upon a row of greased buffalo heads without falling to the ground, both brothers would be given horses and allowed to return in safety to their home. The man bore his brother on his back and walked upon the heads of the buffalo and kept his footing. The Ute chief was true to his word, and the brothers returned to their own people on horseback. From The Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday. University of New Mexico Press, 1969.

Kiowa Brothers n n n The chief is true to his word even though he has nothing to gain and everything to lose by doing so. The chief fulfills his promise of freeing the brothers and giving the valuable commodity of horses to the brothers. The chief never for a moment considers or would consider going back on his word.

The Death of Sitting Bear Set-angya, or Sitting Bear, was chief of the Kaitsenko Society, the Crazy Dog or dog soldier organization of the Kiowa tribe. It was composed of ten men only, the ten most brave. They were the first and last security of the people. If they should die, everyone should die. Each one of them wore a long sash, so long it trailed the ground, and carried a sacred arrow. In the time of battle, each of these Kaitsenko warriors must, by means of his sacred arrow, fix his sash to the ground, and he must stand his ground to the death.

Set-angya’s son was killed on a raid in Texas, and Set-angya went there and gathered up the bones of his son, and from then on he led a hunting horse that bore the bones of his son on its back. At night he placed the bones in a ceremonial tipi and invited all the people, saying, “Come, come. My son is at home tonight. Come and visit him. Come and pay your respects. ”

Set-angya was imprisoned at Fort Sill. Along with two other chiefs, White Bear and Big Tree, he was placed in the bed of a wagon, to be taken to the railroad, then sent to Fort Richardson to be tried for the raid on the Warren wagon train. As they were going along in the wagon on the grounds of the fort, Set-angya began to sing the song of the Kaitsenko. At this, the others became very upset, because that song was sacred. It could only be sung in the face of death. And when he had sung the song, he said to Set-tainte and Big Tree, “You see that cottonwood on the side of the road ahead? By the time we reach that tree, I will be dead. ” He then pulled a knife, which he had somehow hidden about him, and he attacked the teamster, stabbed him in the leg. The guards, riding close beside the wagon, shot him dead. But he was true to his word. Adapation of a story from The Ancient Child by N. Scott Momaday. New York: Harper Perennial, 1999.

The Death of Sitting Bear n n “By the time we reach that tree, I will be dead. ” “But he was true to his word. ” The story illustrates the sacred nature of language. The Kaitsenko Society (Crazy Dogs or Dog Soldiers) Chief Sitting Bear

Myths

Myths n n n The heart of the oral tradition is the story. Myths: traditional stories passed down from generation to generation, which explain why the world is the way it is. They characteristically involve immortal beings and contain magic or the supernatural

Myths n Myths attempt to explain things such as Natural phenomenon Ø The origin of humans Ø The customs & religious rights of a people Ø Events beyond people’s control Ø

Myths n v v v v Through myths and legends we can see social orders and daily life: how families were organized how political structures operated how men caught fish how religious ceremonies felt to the people who took part how power was divided between men and women how food was prepared how honor in war was celebrated

Myths teach the values and ideals of a culture -what that culture holds as important. n Myths are the stories that a culture uses to create coherence in its life, values, and symbols. n

Myths In myths a culture tells its story of origin and its understanding of the major issues of life and death. n Myths are not stories in isolation: they express a culture’s whole life—all that it is and all that it values. n

Myths n n Myths and legends are not told merely for enjoyment, education or amusement: they are believed. They give concrete form to a set of beliefs and traditions that link people today to ancestors from centuries and millennia past.

Legends and myths are unique in the way they are told and the regions and landscapes in which they are set. Yet there are some universal recurring themes and images: n n n n the sacred four directions: North, South, East, West in various forms the children of the sun the twin brothers who bring culture worlds piled on top of each other primordial waters perpetual destruction and recreation powerful heroes and tricksters (Veeho, Rabbit, Coyote, Spider Man)

Creation Myths and legends of human creation and origin reflect in myriad ways a common belief that people are a living part of the natural world, brother and sister to the grain and the trees, the buffalo and the bear.

Genesis: The Christian Creation Myth n n God is the creator of mankind; mankind is granted dominion/power over all other creatures on earth God created Adam (man) out of clay/earth

Genesis: The Christian Creation Myth n n n God created Eve (woman) from Adam & Eve can have everything they want except fruit from the tree of knowledge (eating from this tree represents a desire to be God-like) It is Eve’s (woman’s) weakness that causes their expulsion from the Garden of Eden

“In the beginning, when God created the universe, the earth was formless and desolate. The raging ocean that covered everything was engulfed in total darkness, and the power of God was moving over the water. Then God said, “Let there be light” –and light appeared. God was pleased with what he saw. Then he separated the light from the darkness, and he named the light “Day” and the darkness “Night. ” Evening passed and morning came— that was the first day. ”

Then the Lord God placed the man in the Garden of Eden to cultivate it and guard it. He told him, “You may eat the fruit of any tree in the garden, except the tree that gives knowledge of what is good and what is bad. You must not eat the fruit of that tree; if you do, you will die the same day. … The snake replied, “That’s not true; you will not die. God said that because he knows that when you eat it, you will be like God and know what is good and what is bad. ” The woman saw how beautiful the tree was and how good its fruit would be to eat, and she thought how wonderful it would be to become wise. So she took some of the fruit and ate it. Then she gave some to her husband, and he also ate it. ” …

God asked, “Did you eat the fruit that I told you not to eat? ” The man answered, “The woman you put here with me gave me the fruit, and I ate it” The Lord God asked the woman, “Why did you do this? ” She replied, “The snake tricked me into eating it. ” God said to the woman, I will increase your trouble in pregnancy and your pain in giving birth. In spite of this, you will still have desire for your husband, yet you will be subject to him.

The Power of THE WORD

n n n John’s Gospel: “In the beginning was the Word (logos), and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. ” “And the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us…” In John’s Gospel Jesus is the “new Adam” Genesis: God creates the world by speaking: “And God said…” The spoken word or just words/language have the power to create (and thus destroy).

Kiowa Origin Myth “You know, everything had to begin, and this is how it was: the Kiowas came one by one into the world through a hollow log. There were many more than now, but not all of them got out. There was a woman whose body was swollen up with child, and she got stuck in the log. After that, no one could get through, and that is why the Kiowas are a small tribe in number. They looked around and saw the world. It made them glad to see so many things. They called themselves Kwuda, “coming out. ” From The Way to Rainy Mountain – N. Scott Momaday

from The World on the Turtle’s Back – Iroquois creation myth “In the middle of the Sky-World there grew a Great Tree which was not like any of the trees that we know. It was tremendous; it had grown there forever. It had enormous roots that spread out from the floor of the Sky-World. And on its branches there were many different kinds of leaves and different kinds of fruits and flowers. The tree was not supposed to be marked or mutilated by any of the beings who dwelt in the Sky-World. It was a sacred tree that stood at the center of the universe. ” (text, p 23)

“The woman decided that she wanted some bark from one of the roots of the Great Tree— perhaps as a food or as a medicine, we don’t know. She told her husband this. He didn’t like the idea. He knew it was wrong. But she insisted, and he gave in. So he dug a hole among the roots of this great sky tree, and he bared some of its roots. But the floor of the Sky-World wasn’t very thick, and he broke a hole through it. He was terrified, for he had never expected to find empty space underneath the world”

“But his wife was filled with curiosity. He wouldn’t get any of the roots for her, so she set out to do it herself. She bent over and she looked down, and she saw the ocean far below…She fell through the hole…And so she began to fall toward the great ocean far below…

from The World on the Turtle’s Back – Iroquois creation myth “They [the twins] buried their mother. And from her grave grew the plant which the people still use. From her head grew the corn, the beans, and the squash— ‘our supporters, the three sisters. ’ And from her heart grew the sacred tobacco, which the people still use in the ceremonies and by whose upward-floating smoke they send thanks. The women call her ‘our mother, ’ and they dance and sing in rituals so that the corn, the beans, and the squash may grow to feed the people. ” (text, p 26)

Coyote and Buffalo - Okanogan [Buffalo Bull] gave Coyote a young cow, the youngest cow, and he said, “Never kill her, Sink-ka-lip! Take good care of her and she will supply you with meat forever. When you get hungry, just slice off some choice fat with a flint knife. Then rub ashes on the wound and the cut will heal at once…But after a while he became tired of eating fat, and he began to long for the sweet marrow-bones and the other good parts of the buffalo. ”

‘Buffalo Bull will never know, ’ Coyote told himself, and he took his young cow down beside a creek and killed her… Coyote had to return to his own country without a buffalo. That is why there never have been any buffalo along the Swah-netk’-qhu.

Devil’s Tower n n The Native American myth of the boy who turns into a bear is common among many tribes of the Great Plains. The myth explains the natural phenomenon of Devil’s Tower and of the Big Dipper.

“Eight children were there at play, seven sisters and their brother. Suddenly the boy was struck dumb; he trembled and began to run upon his hands and feet. His fingers became claws, and his body was covered with fur. Directly there was a bear where the boy had been. The sisters were terrified; they ran, and the bear after them…

They came to the stump of a great tree, and the tree spoke to them. It bade them climb upon it, and as they did so it began to rise into the air. The bear came to kill them, but they were just beyond its reach. It reared against the tree and scored the bark all around with its claws. The seven sisters were borne into the sky, and they became the stars of the Big Dipper. ”

Devil’s Tower, Wyoming Lakota: Mato Tipila, which means “Bear Tower” http: //www. nps. gov/archive/deto/home. htm

• Their names for the monolith include: Aloft on a Rock (Kiowa), Bear's House (Cheyenne, Crow), Bear's Lair (Cheyenne, Crow), Bear's Lodge (Cheyenne, Lakota), Bear's Lodge Butte (Lakota), Bear's Tipi (Arapaho, Cheyenne), Tree Rock (Kiowa), and Grizzly Bear Lodge (Lakota). • The name Devil's Tower probably originated in 1875 during an expedition led by Col. Richard Irving Dodge when his interpreter misinterpreted the name to mean Bad God's Tower. This was later shortened to the Devil's Tower.

http: //www. sdnhm. org/exhibit s/bears/teachersguide/backgro und. html

Bad Women are Thrown Away - Kiowa “Bad women are thrown away. Once there was a handsome young man. He was wild and reckless, and the chief talked to the wind about him. After that, the man went hunting. A great whirlwind passed by, and he was blind. The Kiowas have no need of a blind man; they left him alone with his wife and child. The winter was coming and food was scarce. In four days the man’s wife grew tired of caring for him. A herd of buffalo came near, and the man knew the sound. He asked his wife to hand him a bow and an arrow. “You must tell me, ” he said “when the buffalo are directly in front of me. ” And in that way he killed a bull, but his wife said that he had missed…

He asked for another arrow and killed another bull, but again his wife said that he had missed. Now the man was a hunter, and he knew the sound an arrow makes when it strikes home, but he said nothing. Then his wife helped herself to the meat and ran away with her child. The man was blind; he ate grass and kept himself alive. In seven days a band of Kiowas found him and took him to their camp. There in the firelight a woman was telling a story. She told of how her husband had been killed by enemy warriors. The blind man listened, and he knew her voice. That was a bad woman. At sunrise they threw her away. - from The Way to Rainy Mountain N. Scott Momaday

Discussion Questions n n What supernatural or magical elements are contained in the myth? What does the myth reveal about the qualities the Kiowa value or disapprove in an individual? What does the myth reveal about an individual’s relationship with the tribe as a whole? How does the role of language in this story (think of the wife) contrast with the role of language in the story of the Arrowmaker?

The Buffalo with Horns of Steel - Kiowa “There was a strange thing, a buffalo with horns of steel. One day a man came upon it in the plain, just there where once upon a time four trees stood close together. The man and the buffalo began to fight. The man’s hunting horse was killed right away, and the man climbed one of the trees. The great bull lowered its head and began to strike the tree with its black metal horns, and soon the tree fell. But the man was quick, and he leaped to the safety of the second tree. Again the bull struck with its unnatural horns, and the tree soon splintered and fell. The man leaped to the third tree and all the while he shot arrows at the beast; but the arrows glanced away like sparks from its dark hide. At last there remained only one tree and the man had only one arrow. He believed then that he would surely die…

But something spoke to him and said: “Each time the buffalo prepares to charge, it spreads its cloven hooves and strikes the ground. Only there, in the cleft of the hoof is it vulnerable; it is there you must aim. ” The buffalo went away and turned, spreading its hooves, and the man drew the arrow to the bow. His aim was true and the arrow struck deep into the soft flesh of the hoof. The great bull shuddered and fell, and its steel horns flashed once in the sun. ” from The Way to Rainy Mountain N. Scott Momaday

Discussion Questions n n How do we know this is a post-contact (with Europeans) story? What does the buffalo’s one weakness echo in Greek mythology? What might the buffalo with horns of steel represent? Given this symbolism, what message might this story communicate to the Kiowa people?

The Horse that Died of Shame - Kiowa “Once there was a man who owned a fine hunting horse. It was black and fast and afraid of nothing. When it was turned upon an enemy it charged in a straight line and struck at full speed; the man need have no hand upon the rein. But, you know, that man knew fear. Once during a charge he turned the animal from its course. That was a bad thing. The hunting horse died of shame. ” - from The Way to Rainy Mountain N. Scott Momaday

Why Buffalo Has A Hump from the Ojibwa and Seneca Buffalo have humps. They hang their heads low. And do you know why? A long time ago, Little Buffalo Calf liked to run and jump and play. Just like you do.

His father, The Buffalo Chief, said, “You can run and play in the green grass. You can run by the stream. You can run near the big trees. You can run by the gray rocks. But do not run hear the brown grass. ”

One day Little Buffalo Calf asked, “Father, the brown grass looks nice. May I play in the brown grass, please? ” “No, ” said the Buffalo Chief. “You must keep out of the brown grass. ” “But why? ” asked Little Buffalo Calf. “Because that is where the birds live, ” answered his father.

Little Buffalo Calf wished he could play in the brown grass. “I do not think the birds will mind, ” he said to himself. When his father was not looking, Little Buffalo Calf ran in the brown grass. He trampled the birds’ nests under his heavy feet. The birds began to cry. “You are a bad buffalo!” said the birds. “You have ruined our homes!” “Oh my!” said little Buffalo Calf. He was sad.

Just then the Creator came. “Little Buffalo Calf, you did not mind your father, ” the Creator said. “And now the birds have no home. You must be taught a lesson. ” The Creator put a stick on Little Buffalo Calf’s shoulders. And there a big hump grew. “I am sorry, ” said Little Buffalo Calf. And he hung his head low with shame. Now all buffalo have humps. And they hang their heads low.

Verbal Equations Songs, Spells, Prayers

Verbal Equations n n Ø Ø Ø Spells, prayers and songs that are characteristically brief, and contain patterns, repetition and formulas, all of which make them easier to remember. Verbal equations are recited at specific, significant times for an intended purpose (birth, marriage, travel, sickness, hunting, harvest time). Spell: a set of directions Prayer: a request Song: a description

Birth & Infancy

Lullaby Baby, sleep Father has gone to find turtle shells He said he will come back tomorrow Baby, sleep, sleep - Creek

Lullaby Baby swimming down the river: Little driftwood legs, Little rabbit legs. - Kiowa

Cradlesong sleep, little one, your father is bringing a spotted deer to be your pet, a rabbit’s ear to be your necklace, spotted bramble fruits to be your toys. - Mbya

When the Child is Named The mother and the godmother stand on the housetop before dawn; the godmother speaks: My sun! My morning star! Help this child to become a man. I name him Rain-dew Falling! I name him Star Mountain! The mother throws a live coal; the godmother throws sacred meal. - Tewa

Growing Up

A Song of the Girl’s Puberty Ceremony When the earth was made; When the sky was made; When my songs were first heard; The holy mountain was standing toward me with life. At the center of the sky, the holy boy walks four ways with life. Just mine, my mountain became; standing toward me with life. The dancers became; standing toward me with life. When the sun goes down to the earth, where Mescal Mountain lies with its head toward the sunrise, Black spruce became; standing up with me. - White Mountain Apache

Love Songs & Love Magic

Last night I dreamed of you. I dreamed you were walking on the shore pebbles and I was walking with you. last night I dreamed of you. and as though I were awake, I dreamed that I followed you, that I wanted you like a young seal, that you were wanted by me the way a hunter wants a young seal that dives when it feels it is being followed. that’s how you were wanted by me, who dreamed of you. - Ammassalik Eskimo The Dream

Woman’s Song A loon I thought it was But it was My love’s Splashing oar To Sault Ste. Marie He has departed My love Has gone on before me Never again Can I see him - Chippewa

Song Early morning dawning green, Ah…is the willow so green? In the green fields, You gave me your love. - Quechua

Woman’s Prayer Ruda! O you who dwell in the skies, Who love the rain. O you who dwell in the skies! Make it be that he will find all other women unattractive. Let him think of me, When the sun disappears in the west. -Anambe’

Against Sickness & Evil

Medicine Man’s Prayer Listen, my dream! This you told me should be done. This you said should be the way. You said it would cure the sick. Help me now. Do not lie to me. Help me, Sun person. Help me to cure this sick man. - Blackfeet

For the Hunter

A Song of the Buffalo Dance One I have wounded, yonder he moves, Yonder he moves, bleeding at the mouth. One I have wounded, yonder he moves, Yonder he moves, with staggering steps. One I have wounded, yonder he moves, Yonder he falls, yonder he falls. - Omaha

Prayer Before Killing the Eagle Do not think that I shall harm you. You will have a new body. Now turn your head to the north and lie flat! - Yokuts

Words to Call Up Game Beast of the sea, Come and offer yourself in the dear early morning! Beast of the plain, Come and offer yourself in the dear early morning! - Iglulik Eskimo

War and Death

Prayer to the Deceased Naked you came from Earth the Mother. Naked you return to her. May a good wind be your road. - Omaha

War Song clear the way in a sacred manner I come the earth is mine - Sioux

The Moon and the Year The moon and the year Travel and pass away: Also the day, also the wind. Also the flesh passes away To the place of its quietness. - Maya

Crazy Dog Song I live, but I cannot live forever. Only the great earth lives forever, The great sun is the only living thing. - Kiowa

Song of the Kaitsenko The sun and the moon will live forever, but we Kaitsenko must die. - Kiowa

Dog Soldier