Multilingualism and Language Policies across Europe Gabrielle HoganBrun

Multilingualism and Language Policies across Europe Gabrielle Hogan-Brun University of Bristol g. hogan-brun@bristol. ac. uk 1 2020/9/18

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Approaches to multilingualism Elimination Tolerance Maintenance 3 2020/9/18

Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities Adopted by the Council of Europe in 1994; came into force in 1998. ****** ‘The parties undertake to promote the conditions necessary for persons belonging to national minorities to maintain their culture and preserve […] their language’. 4 2020/9/18

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Changing ethnic composition in the Baltic States from 1923 to 2000 6 1923 -34 1989 2000/1 Estonians Russians Others 92. 4% 3. 9% 3. 7% 61. 5% 30. 3% 8. 2% 67. 9% 25. 6% 6. 5% Latvians Russians Others 73. 4% 10. 6% 16% 52% 34% 14% 57. 7% 29. 6% 12. 7% Lithuanians Russians Polish Others 84. 2% 2. 5% 3. 2% 10. 1% 79. 6% 9. 4% 7% 4% 83. 45% 6. 31% 6. 74% 3. 5% 2020/9/18

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Individual multilingualisms ‘As a child I spoke Ukrainian and Polish with my parents. We also used Yiddish. I went to a Russian-medium school. Now I use Lithuanian more often’. 8 2020/9/18

‘My parents speak Polish. I grew up in a Russian-medium school. Now I am studying in Lithuanian at University. I don’t know which is my first language’. 9 2020/9/18

Language policy aims across Baltic 10 l Encourage bilingualism l secure socio-linguistic function of titular languages l protect minority languages 2020/9/18

Competence of the titular languages amongst minority representatives 11 1989: 2000: Estonia 67 % 80 % Overall % of minority representatives 31 % Latvia 62 % 82 % 43 % Lithuania 85 % 94 % 18 % 2020/9/18

Models of education in the Baltic countries mainstream l minority-medium l bilingual l (early and late) immersion l 12 2020/9/18

Education Law (1998): Latvia Language of Acquisition of Education (Article 9) (3) …each educatee shall learn the official language and take examinations testing his or her knowledge of the official language… Amendment From 1 September 2004, acquisition of the study curriculum in the official language shall be effected according to the proportion of three fifths (=60%) of the total study load. 13 2020/9/18

Ethnic Composition of the Population of Latvia 14 2020/9/18

The educational reform as reflected in the media Russian-medium press 15 l ‘assimilating Latvianization’ l moratorium on the reform (till 2007) defending secondary and higher education in Russian 2020/9/18

Anti-reform protest actions as reflected in the media RETURN TO AGGRESSIVE PROTEST ACTIONS AGAINST EDUCATIONAL REFORM ******* …to vindicate disregard of Russian-speakers’ rights & interests during last 13 years… (Headquarters for the Defence of Russian Schools) 16 2020/9/18

Russia’s comments on the reform Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov (visiting): ‘Everyone should be able to get education in the language given by God’. Russian Foreign Affairs Minister: ‘[The reform] contradicts human rights (& the Latvian Constitution). 17 2020/9/18

Russia’s comments… Deputy State Duma Chairman Vladimir Zhirinovsky …Latvia will be destroyed […] empty spaces will be there if [Latvians] touch Russians and Russian schools (Правда, 27 March 2004). 18 2020/9/18

Russian interests […] maltreatment of Russians in the ‘geopolitical space of the former Soviet Union’ could be construed as grounds for Russian military intervention. Russia’s 1993 military doctrine. 19 2020/9/18

Managing multilingualism […] determining a working language management plan will depend on an appreciation of: - the fruits of the developing sociolinguistic studies of the current linguistic ecology, - the attitudes and beliefs of the citizens, and on an honest appraisal of the major forces affecting the linguistic and socioeconomic environment. 20 2020/9/18