MOTIVATION Motivation Why Do We Care Ability PERFORMANCE

MOTIVATION

Motivation: Why Do We Care? Ability PERFORMANCE Motivation Opportunity Performance = f (Ability, Motivation, Opportunity)

Content Theories • • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory Herzberg’s Theory X & Theory Y Mc. Clelland’s Need Achievement Theory

Maslow’s Theory “We each have a hierarchy of needs that ranges from "lower" to "higher. " As lower needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for other, higher needs to emerge. ” Daniels, 2004

Maslow’s Theory Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

Essence of Theory • People are wanting beings & their needs influence Behavior • Only unsatisfied needs influences behavior, satisfied needs do not act as motivators • Since needs are many they are arranged in hierarchy i. e. from basic to complex • The person advances to next level of hierarchy only when the lower level is satisfied.

Self-Actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological

Critical Appraisal • No strict hierarchy • There is often a lack of direct cause-effect relationship between need and behavior • A person tries for his higher-level need when his lower-order need is reasonably satisfied.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• Alderfer believes that there is a value in categorising needs and that there is a basic distinction between lower-order Needs and higher order needs. • He argues that along with satisfactionprogression, people can experience frustration-regression, that is, if people cannot satisfy their needs at a given level of abstraction, they ‘drop back’ and again focus on more concrete needs. • Alderfer has categorised the various needs into three categories: existence needs, Relatedness needs, and growth needs.

Existence Needs • Existence needs include all needs related to physiological and safety aspects of an individual. Thus, existence needs group physiological and safety needs of Maslow into one category as these have similar impact on the behaviour of the individual.

Relatedness Needs • Relatedness needs include all those needs that involve relationship with other people whom the individual cares. Relatedness needs cover Maslow’s social needs and that part of esteem needs which is derived from the relationship with other people.

Growth Needs • Growth needs involve the individual making creative efforts to achieve full potential in the existing environment. These include Maslow’s self actualization need as well as that part of the esteem need which is internal to the individual like feeling of being unique, feeling of personal growth, etc.

• Frustration to satisfy higher level need can result in regression to a lower level need

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. – Motivator relate to the nature of the work itself— autonomy, responsibility, interesting work, achievement, advancement. – Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security, company policy and administration, supervision, salary. • Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

Mcclelland’s Needs Theory • Mc. Clelland has identified three types of basic motivating needs. He classified these as • need for power (n/PWR), • need for affiliation (n/AFF), and • need for achievement (n/ACH).

• Power Motive The ability to induce or influence behavior is power. Mc. Clelland his associates have found that people with a high power need have a great concern for exercising influence and control. Such individuals generally seek positions of leadership; they involve in conversation; they are forceful, outspoken, hard headed and demanding.

• Affiliation Motive Since people are social animals, most individuals like to interact and be with others in situations where they feel they belong and are accepted , they are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationship, enjoying a sense of intimacy and understanding, and enjoy consoling and helping others in trouble.

• Achievement Motive Over the years, behavioral scientists have observed that some people have an intense desire to achieve. Mc. Clelland’s research has led him to believe that the need for achievement is a distinct human motive that can be distinguished from other needs. It can also be isolated and assessed in any group.

Mc. Clelland has identified four basic characteristics of high achievers: • • 1. Moderate Risks. 2. Immediate Feedback. 3. Accomplishment. 4. Preoccupation with the Tasks

PROCESS THEORIES • Expectancy Theory • Goal Setting Theory • Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory • Motivation is fostered when the employee believes three things: – That effort will result in performance • This is termed “Expectancy” – That performance will result in outcomes • This is termed “Instrumentality” – That those outcomes will be valuable • This is termed “Valence”

Expectancy Theory Effort Expectancy Performance X Instrumentality Rewards Motivation X Valence of Rewards Motivation=V*I*E Job Performance

Two Beliefs • EXPECTANCY: Effort Performance – What can hinder this link? – What can you do about it? • INSTRUMENTALITY: Performance Outcomes – What can hinder this link? – What can you do about it?

Expectancy Theory • Motivation = (E P) x (P O) x V 1 V 2 V 3 V 4 • What happens if either expectancy, instrumentality, or valence is zero?

Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory • Determine the outcomes employees value. • Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. • Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. • Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. • Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. • Monitor the reward system for inequities.

Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory • Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. • Design challenging jobs. • Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. • Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. • Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. • Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

Goal Setting Theory by Edwin Locke • Motivation is fostered when employees are given challenging and specific goals (rather than easy goals, abstract goals, or no goals)

Insights from Goal-Setting Research n Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. - Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. - Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure. n Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks. - Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. - Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems. n Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. - Goals and feedback should be used together.

Insights from Goal-Setting Research (continued) n Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective. - Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. Different methods work in different situations. n Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal -Setting Outcomes. - Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals. - Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals. - Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation. * Employees may not help each other. * Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals. * Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.

Goal Setting Theory Goals can be an invaluable tool if – Achieving organizational goals results in desired outcomes for the employee and vice versa Challenging And Specific Goals Feedback Participation Commitment Coaching and Modeling Resources Self-Efficacy Motivation and Task Performance

Goal Setting Theory • Supported in a variety of contexts – Beaver trappers, Salespeople, Engineers, Assembly line workers, Baggage handlers, College students, Loggers, Brain injury patients • Goal effects are stronger when: – Feedback on progress is given – Goal commitment is fostered – Adequate resources are provided

Percentage of Maximum Weight Carried on Each Trip Effects of Goals on Performance 100 94 90 Performance at goal was sustained seven years after the goal was first set 80 70 There was drastic increase in performance after a goal was set 60 50 1 2 3 Before Goal 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 After Goal Four-Week Periods Seven Years Later

Feedback and Goal Setting Mean Group Effectiveness Index High 500 400 Feedback + goal setting + incentives (530) Feedback + goalsetting (520) Feedback and goal setting improved group effectiveness even more Feedback (380) 300 Baseline (before 200 feedback) (108) Feedback improved group effectiveness 100 Low 1 -9 10 -14 15 -19 Time (in months) 20 -24

Empirical Status • The two key principles of goal setting theory have been supported – Research clearly shows that specific goals lead to greater motivation than “do your best” goals – Research also shows that difficult goals lead to higher motivation than easier goals • Where to set goals? – At the maximum level that employees will accept and commit to

Adams’ Equity Theory n People strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges n Cognitive perception of fairness or lack of it affects behavior n Inputs – education, skills, training, effort, etc. n Outputs – pay, fringe, security, recognition, etc.

Negative and Positive Inequity A. An Equitable Situation Other Self $2 = $2 per hour 1 hour $4 = $2 per hour 2 hours

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont) B. Negative Inequity Self $2 = $2 per hour 1 hour Other $3 1 hour = $3 per hour

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont) C. Positive Inequity Other Self $3 = $3 per hour 1 hour $2 = $1 per hour 1 hours

Lessons in Equity Theory • Pay attention to what employees’ perceive to be fair and equitable • Allow employees to have a “voice” • Employees should have opportunity to appeal • Organizational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes • Failure to achieve equity could be costly • Climate of justice