MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY Gzde BALABAN Derya DEMR Languages are

MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY Gözde BALABAN Derya DEMİR

• Languages are classified along a linear scale of morphological typology. • There are four categories in the linear scale. • Each category has example languages.

1. Isolating 2. Agglutinative Mandarin Turkısh (has isolated forms) (one form for one function. ) 3. Fusional 4. Introflexive Latin Arabic (one form for (have root more than one pattern system) function) • The linear scale combines three different parameters. These parameters are fusion, exponence and flexion.

1. FUSION • Fusion shows the degree to which morphological markers attach to a host stem. • There are three types of fusion; ISOLATING; a marker that stands alone. CONCATENATIVE; a marker that is bound. NON-LINEAR; a marker that includes modifying the host.

• All languages contain all of the types of fusion. For example; • English Language has; - Isolating markers ( must ) - Concatenative markers (plural –s) - Non-linear markers ( sing- sang- sung)

ISOLATING MARKERS • There are some markers that stand in phonological isolation in most languages. • These markers have function as individual words. • Koyra Chiini language has isolating markers.

All grammatical information are given with isolating markers. The tense of verb is given with imperfect marker ‘o’.

CONCATENATIVE (LINEAR) MARKERS • The term concatenative literally means ‘chaining together’ • Although concatenative markers are bound, they are segmentable. For example Chichewa Language has concatenative markers.

In the example, the grammatical markers are ‘m/a’ and ‘mi’ and ‘na’. The grammatical markers are bound are segment into morphemes.

NON-LINEAR MARKERS • Non-linear markers include some kind of modification to the host stem. Also, they are not segment into chains of morphemes. • In Semitic Languages, ‘root-and-pattern’ strategy is used. This strategy is termed ‘ablaut’.

SUPRASEGMENTALS • There a type in non-linear morphological processes. The type is suprasegmentals. • Suprasegmentals contains tone, stress and lenght. • For example; ın Arabic, there is not interrogative particle. Question is determined with tone.

• Tone is used in continental South East Asia and in Sub- Saharan Africa. Another example is Lango Language.

Replacement/Substitution • A regular marker replaces a part of the stem. • It is occured in Nilotic Languages.

SUPPLETION • Replacement has a type. The type is suppletion. • A root or stem of a different etymological origin replaces a root or stem. For example; English Language.

SUBSTRACTION • Substraction is a type of non-linear processes. • In substraction, long vowel changes short vowel in some plural. For example; ‘kaat’(singular), ‘kat’(plural) • When the final consonant is removed from perfective form, imperfective form is occurred. For example; ‘hi: nk’ (perfective), ‘hi: n’(imperfective).

REDUPLICATION • Reduplication is placed between concatenation and non-linear processes. • Reduplication includes whole base or a part of base. • Reduplication distinguishes as full or partial reduplication.

• Full reduplication has whole base. • Partial reduplication has a part of the base. • Reduplication can be simple, complex or discontinuous.

• In the simple reduplication, the whole base do not change. • For example; ‘Sen burada güzel otur. ’ • In the complex reduplication, a part of form changes. • For example; ‘Pespembe bir elbise aldı. ’ • Discontinuous reduplication involves other morphological material between reduplicant and the base. • For example; ‘Kötü mü kötü bir gün’.

• Erromangan language involves full simple reduplication.

• Persian language involves full complex reduplication. The initial consonants /b/ and /m/ change /m/ and /p/.

Dupflix reduplication involves more complex process. • For example: Thao language has dupflix reduplications. Firt consonant is copied and ‘a’ vowel is added. Thus, Instruments are occured.

• Ilocano language has several types of reduplication.

• Nakanai language has partial complex reduplication.

• Automatic reduplication: an affix triggers reduplication. For example: Tagalog Language has automatic reduplication.

EXPONENCE - Languages differ as how many grammatical categories may be expressed by one and the same morpheme - Exponence indicates how much information each morpheme conveys There are two types of morphemes; - Seperative(monoexponential) morphemes encode only one single category - Cumulative(polyexponential) morphemes encode several things at the same time

- Exponence may be related with fusion. There are six logical combinations Isolating Separative Cumulative Kasong Wari Concatenative Meithei Spanish Non-linear Dinka Modern Hebrew

1. ISOLATING SEPARATIVE MARKERS -Each of markers stands alone and each of them conveys only one piece of information - Kasong language is an example of isolating seperative markers - The progressive and future marker both form seperate words

2. Concatenative separative markers - They are linearly segmentable and each of segments is seperative. It conveys only one piece of information - Meithei language is an example of concatenative separative markers

3. Nonlinear separative markers - The marker conveys only the information but it is not possible to segment from the host Word - Cases are distinguished according to phonological length - Dinka language is an example of nonlinear separative markers

4. Isolating cumulative markers - Morphemes are seperate words but they contain more than one piece of grammatical information. This information can not be segmentable - Wari language is an example of isolating cumulative markers

5. Concatenative cumulative markers - A marker is bound and it conveys a host of information all at the same time - Spanish is an example of this markers

6. Nonlinear cumulative markers - The stem is modified and ıt conveys more than one piece of information as the tense, the voice and the mood - The grammatical information is not linearly segmentable - Hebrew is an example of nonlinear cumulative markers

FLEXIVITY - Languages differ in how much allomorphy they have. - Flexivity indicates how much allomorphy a language has. - If grammatical marker has different allomorphs, this language is flexive. For example; German is flexive - If grammatical marker is the same , does not vary according to classes of verbs or nouns, this language is nonflexive. For example; Pichi is nonflexive

The four logical combinations of flexion and exponence with the languages Flexive Cumulative Separative German Warlpiri Nonflexive Hawai’i Creole English Pichi

1. Flexive cumulative marker - If grammatical marker is variant and this marker has different functions in a laguage, it is example of flexive cumulative marker. For example; German 2. Nonflexive cumulative marker - If grammatical marker has different functions and is invariant in a language, is an example of nonflexive cumulative marker. For example; Hawai’i Creole English. ‘wen’ expresses both tense (past) and aspect (perfective) at the same time but it is invariant

3. Nonflexive seperative marker - Plural marker in Pichi is an example of nonflexive separative marker - Grammatical marker is invariant but it means only plural and nothing else 4. Flexive separative marker - Walpri is an example of flexive separative marker. - Grammatical marker is variant but it has one function For example; ergative case is marked with –ngku and –rlu.

The six logical combinations of flexicon and fusion with the languages Isolating Flexive Nonflexive Sierra Otomi Pichi Concatenative Non-linear German Turkish Hebrew Kisi

1. Flexive concatenative markers - German is an example of flexive concatenative markers 2. Flexive nonlinear markers - Hebrew is an example of flexive nonlinear markers. 3. Flexive isolating markers - It can be in Sierra Otomi. Person and tense is marked free morpheme which looks different depending on the class the verb belongs to

4. Nonflexive isolating marker - Pichi plural marking is an example of it 5. Nonflexive concatenative marker - Turkish plural marking ‘lar’ is example of it. It attaches to a host but is segmentable and is invariable 6. Nonflexive nonlinear marker - The perfective marker in Kisi is an example of this marker

Synthesis - Synthesis denotes how much information, both grammatical and lexemic, a word may carry There are three basic types of synthesis; 1. Analytic words do not take any affixation to their lexical roots or stems. For example; it is found in English future as He will walk home 2. Synthetic words allow affixation. For example; synthetic tense in English is the past. It ıs expressed with –ed affixation as in He walked home

- Synthetic word is very long and involves a great deal of segments but there is only one lexeme. Turkish is an example of this word. - It can end up being very long. For example; tanıştırılamadıklarındandır. It contains one lexeme as ‘tan’

3. Polysynthetic words contain more than one lexeme - Aluthor is an example of language with polysynthetic words - It contains there different lexemes as ‘akka, nalge, kuww’

Sign language morphology - Sign language is morphologically and linguistically complex as spoken language has minimal meaningful units as morphemes uses different mode of communication as visual instead of audio tends to be less concatenative than in spoken languages has compounding and derivation has non-linear processes. For example; verbs are modified non-linearly for agreement with the subject and object

- There are two types o classifiers as; Entity classifiers encode the referent Handing classfiers encode how the referent is manoeuvred - Sign languages vary in the amount of classifiers they have. For example; Indo-Pakistani Sign Language only has two ‘legs’ and ‘person’ - Many sign languages use reduplication to express general concept of ‘more of the same’