Montessori Piaget Vygotsky Erikson Skinner Bandura Maslow Kohlberg

Montessori – Piaget – Vygotsky – Erikson – Skinner – Bandura – Maslow - Kohlberg THE MAJOR CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORISTS

Behaviorist Theory � Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.

Constructivist Theory � The belief that learning is an active process in which learners construct their own meaning based on prior knowledge and experience

Cognitivist Theory �A response to the problems with the behaviorist theory � Belief that the mind is a “black box” � Learning is explained as a “recall” of stored information. � Instruction usually grabs the attention of learners and helps make sense of the information so it can be more readily stored (learned) for later recall.

Social Learning Theory � People learn from one another, via observation, imitating and modeling. � It has been called the bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it includes attention, memory and motivation

Jean Piaget Primary Components of Jean Piaget’s 4 -Stage Model

Important Concepts within Piaget’s Model � Schemes: Mental model of the world that we use to represent, organize, and interpret our experiences � Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into an existing scheme � Accommodation: Changing or modifying a scheme in order to incorporate a new experience

Four Major Stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (0 -2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 -7 years) 3. Concrete Operations (7 -11 years) 4. Formal Operations (12+ years) 1.

Sensorimotor Stage (0 -2 years) � Infant’s world consists of the immediate environment � Interact and learn by sensory input (hearing, feeling, seeing) with motor capabilities � Gradually learn to control their own bodies and objects in the external world � The ultimate task at this stage is to achieve the sense that objects go on existing even when we cannot see them (Object Constancy/Permanence).

Preoperational Stage (2 -6/7 years) � Developing ability to manipulate images and symbols, especially language � Play becomes key in learning. Begin to see use of symbolism in pretend play (e. g. Use a broomstick as a “horsey”). � Child’s view of the world is egocentric. � Logical organization of thoughts remains undeveloped (e. g. unable to apply principles of conservation).

Concrete Operations (6/7 -12 Years) � Perform logical operations, but only in relation to concrete objects, not abstract ideas. � Basic math skills developed (counting, addition, subtraction) as well as an understanding of conservation. � Can sort items into categories, reverse the direction of their thinking, and think about two concepts simultaneously. � Able to understand a situation from another person’s perspective.

Conservation � Refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container shape or apparent size

Formal Operations (12+ years) � Begin to think logically and abstractly, including speculations about what might happen in the future � Theoretical, philosophical, and scientific reasoning becomes possible. � Abstract concepts and moral values become as important as concrete objects. � With these newly developed thinking abilities, adolescents begin to reinterpret and revise their knowledge base.

Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky � Different than Piaget’s image of the individual constructing understanding alone �Everything is social � Vygotsky saw cognitive development as depending more on interactions with people & tools in the child’s world. �Tools are real: pens, paper, computers; �or Tools are symbols: language, math systems, signs

The Big Ideas… � Explained complex learning through Guided Participation. �Explained things that are taught rather than discovered (reading, writing etc. ) �a way to “share thinking load” �Helping a novice accomplish a complex task �Assistance can be physical or mental & come from adults or peers �Scaffolding: where the more knowledgeable other provides some type of structure.

The Big Ideas… � Vygotsky developed theory of the Zone of proximal development (ZPD) �The distance between where a learner is at developmentally on their own & where a learner could be with the help of a more knowledgeable other. �A more knowledgeable other can be an adult or a peer, helping a learner in this way is to scaffold their learning. Scaffolding occurs through the process of internalization… mediated by language and thought.

Examples of Guided Participation �A mother sitting with her toddler singing, “Baa, baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir …. ” at this point the mother pauses and the child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!. ” �How is this guided participation?

Examples of Guided Participation �A 6 -year old lost a toy & asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy. The child says, I can’t remember. ” He asks a series of questions – “Did you have it in your room? Outside? ” To each question the child answers“No. ” When he asks, “In the car? ”, she says “I think so” and finds the toy in the car. �In this story, who found the toy?

Examples of Guided Participation � Think back to your days of driver’s ed. and driving around with your parents with your temporary driver’s license. �In what ways did your parent or driving instructor provide guided participation for you?

Vygotsky and Schools � Emphasized social learning �We can often complete harder tasks with someone else than we could alone. ○ Collaborative learning, group presentations, group work � Zone of Proximal Development �The teacher considers how much scaffolding to give a student to help them learn. �A push for“authentic learning” �Learning is tied to the context it is in.

Motivation & Vygotsky � This view emphasizes how people’s identities are formed by their participation in a group. �Students can be motivated to learn by participating in communities where learning is valued. ○ Ex: Children want to learn to read & write to become members of the“literary club” and to be able to participate and interact with the written world.

Vygotsky’s Words… � “It is through others that we become ourselves. ” �All learning is social � “What a child can do in co-operation today he can do alone tomorrow. ” �Guided participation, ZPD, scaffolding

Maria Montessori

Key Goals of a Montessori Education To foster competent, responsible, adaptive citizens who are lifelong learners and problem solvers � To promote learning in an inquiring, cooperative, nurturing atmosphere through self and teacher initiated experiences � To support learning through the senses, by manipulating materials and interacting with others, leading to the abstract understanding of ideas �

Key Goals Continued To consider the individual as a whole: physical, emotional, social, aesthetic, spiritual, and cognitive needs are inseparable � To respect oneself, others, the environment, and all life � Infuse both joy AND challenge in learning � Nurture a child’s mind AND spirit � Supports a child’s abilities AND interests �

Seguin’s Three Step Lesson � Naming (Introduction) – “This is a dog. ” � Recognizing (Identification) – “Show me the dog. ” � Remembering (Cognition) – “What is this? ” �Once they can remember it, they have learned it.

Children have such absorbent minds.

Casa Dei Bambini � The first ‘children’s house. ” �The Montessori Method is born.

Montessori’s Four Planes � Each plane is marked by physical, social, and psychological characteristics. � The argument of traditional education vs. education based on stages of human development

Linear vs. Peaks & Valleys � Traditional education is based on the assumption of linear development. � Montessori education is geared to the peaks and valleys of human development.

First Plane: Birth to Age 6 � Development of the self � Sensitive periods �The senses are developing.

Second Plane: Age 6 to 12 � Developing sense of morality and justice � Intellectual period � Development of reasoning skills: “How? ” and “Why? ” questions

Third Plane: Age 12 to 18 � Needs in adolescence are similar to those in early childhood: the formation of the self

Fourth Plane: Age 18 to 24 � Adulthood: role in society, experiences that expand human potential

The Prepared Environment � The learning environment should be designed to facilitate independent learning and exploration of the child. � The prepared environment is a calm, ordered, aesthetically pleasing space designed to meet the child’s needs and interests.

The Prepared Environment The prepared environment consists of a wide variety of multisensory learning materials that are organized by different curriculum areas: Sensorial, Practical Life, Language, Math, Cultural and Science. � Materials are organized in a sequence that begins with the simplest, most concrete representation of the subject matter, making a gradual progression to the abstract. �

The Prepared Environment � The Montessori prepared environment consists of three kinds of materials: 1. Materials through which a child can develop his skills for independence and academic knowledge 2. Art materials (including writing tools) for the expression of self 3. Materials for the maintenance of the classroom so a child can develop pride and responsibility for his own environment

The Montessori Teacher � The Montessori teacher (originally called a “Directress”) acts as a: �designer of the environment �facilitator of learning �Role model �record keeper, and �meticulous observer of each child’s intellectual, social, and emotional growth.

The Prepared Environment � The less tangible aspects of the Montessori prepared environment are the factors that nurture the child’s social and emotional growth: �Strong sense of community �Deep respect for child as an individual �Multi-age classroom structure �Freedom within limits

How Do Children Learn? � Children learn by doing. � Children learn from each other. � Children learn best in an atmosphere of: �mutual respect �trust, and �encouragement.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Moral Development � Moral development is the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behavior.

Moral Dilemmas � Social issues with 2+ solutions What was Robin Hood’s moral dilemma?

Kohlberg's Theory � This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage. � However, movement through these stages are not natural, that is people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they mature. In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma. � According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. For example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.

Kohlberg’s Six Stages Pre-Conventional Moral Development Ø Stage 1 Ø Stage 2 Conventional Moral Development Ø Stage 3 Ø Stage 4 Post-Conventional Moral Development Ø Stage 5 Ø Stage 6

Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0 -9 years Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. � Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment � Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished � Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain � Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being Stage 2 – Naively Egotistical At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests. � Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy � Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous � Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless � Believes that the end justifies the means � Will do a favor only to get a favor � Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does of need

Level 2: Conventional Morality 10 -15 years Stage 3 – “Good Boy-Good Girl” Orientation This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice, " and consideration of how choices influence relationships. � Finds � Feels peer approval very important that intensions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds � Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective Stage 4 – Law and Social Order At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority. � Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed � Respects authority and obeys it without question � Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority � Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4

Level 3: Postconventional Morality – 16+ Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. � Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest � Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule � Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual � Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system number of people Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. � Believes that there are higher moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs � Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected � Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value

The Heinz Dilemma: A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2, 000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1, 000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it. " So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: � Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. � Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning. � Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.

Watch the Heinz Dilemma Name Alex Old Man Little Boy Lady 2 Shane Stage of Development Reasoning

LEARNING ACTIVITY 5. 31 � For the following moral dilemma, describe a response which might be given by someone in each of the first four stages of Kohlberg's theory. � Jill goes shopping one day with her best friend, Sujatha tries on a jumper and walks out of the shop wearing it under her jacket. Jill is left to face the store's security person who insists that Jill names Sujatha and gives Sujatha's address. The manager of the store tells Jill she will be in serious trouble if she does not disclose Sujatha's name and address. What should Jill do?

Erikson Erikson’s Childhood Stages of Conflict

Trust Vs. Mistrust (0 -1 Year) Description: Infants depend on others to meet their basic needs, and therefore must be able to blindly trust the caregivers to provide them. � Positive Outcome: If their needs are met consistently and responsively, infants will learn to trust their environment and people in it. � Negative Outcome: If needs are not responsibly met, infant may view world as a dangerous and unreliable place. �

Autonomy Vs. Shame/Doubt (1 -2 Years) Description: Toddlers learn to explore and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage. � Positive Outcome: If a child is encouraged to explore and is reassured when mistakes are made, he/she will develop confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence. � Negative Outcome: If parents are overprotective or extremely critical, child may feel ashamed of behaviors and doubt his/her abilities. �

Initiative Vs. Guilt (2 -6 Years) � Description: Children begin to interact with environment in more “adult like” manner as motor and language skills develop. They learn to maintain an eagerness for adventure and play, while learning to control impulsive behavior. � Positive Outcome: If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept concept of right/wrong without guilt, and not feel shame when using their imagination and engaging in fantasy play. � Negative Outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent.

Competence/Industry Vs. Inferiority (6 -12 Years) Description: School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to master basic social and academic skills. Peers become the key social agent and children begin to compare themselves with others outside of the family. � Positive Outcome: If children can find pleasure in learning, being productive, and seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence. � Negative Outcome: If not, they will develop feelings of inferiority. �

Identity Vs. Role Confusion (12 -20 Years) Description: This is the crossroad between childhood and maturity when adolescents ask "Who am I? " The key social agent is the person’s society of peers. � Positive Outcome: Adolescents who solve this conflict successfully will develop a strong identity, and will be ready to plan for the future. � Negative Outcome: If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices about his/her role in life. �

Putting It All Together

Age Cognitive Psychosocial 0 -1 Sensorimotor Trust vs Mistrust 1 -2 Sensorimotor Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt 2 -6 Preoperational Initiative vs Guilt 6 -7 7 -12 1220+ Preoperational /Concrete Operations Formal Operations Initiative vs Guilt Competence/Industry vs Inferiority Identity vs Role Confusion

Birth-1 Year of Age Sensorimotor � Interacts and learns by sensory and motor experiences. � Begins learning to control body and use it to obtain needs. � Early stage learning of object permanence (mother). Trust Vs Mistrust � Infants depend on caregivers to respond to their sensorimotor communications and meet their basic needs.

Ages 1 -2 Sensorimotor � Still interacts and learns by sensory and motor experiences, but is more efficient at doing so. � The ability to walk allows child to expand his/her sensory world. Autonomy Vs. Shame/Doubt � Toddlers learn to explore and do things for themselves. Their self-control and selfconfidence begin to develop at this stage.

Ages 2 -6/7 � � Preoperational Language development is prominent. Fantasy/imaginary play becomes key in learning about and expressing their understanding of the world. Child’s view of the world is egocentric. Formal logic is not a part of their thinking. Initiative Vs Guilt � Children begin to interact with environment using motor and language skills. � Impulse control is initiated by external structure. � Guilt can often stem from an egocentric understanding of the world around them.

Ages 6/7 -12 Concrete Operations � Perform logical operations (i. e. basic math skills, categorical, thinking), but only in relation to concrete objects, not abstract ideas. � Able to understand a situation from another person’s perspective. Competence Vs Inferiority � School is a central part of life at this stage. Children learn to master basic social and academic skills. � Peers are the key social agent and they begin to compare themselves to other children.

Ages 12 -20 Formal Operations � Abstract, theoretical, philosophical, and scientific reasoning becomes possible. � Long term cause and effect speculations begin to occur. � Adolescents begin to question, reinterpret and revise their previous knowledge base. Identity Vs Role Confusion � Adolescents begin to ask the question, "Who am I? " � The adolescent typically relies on his/her society of peers to help resolve the inner conflicts.

Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

Hierarchy of Needs growth emotional physical

Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs

Physiological Needs �food �water �air �sleep

Food: A Most Powerful Need • South American Rugby team crashed in 1970 • Food was the most pressing problem. • They ate human flesh for survival. • Even the strongest taboo was broken to fill the basic need for food.

Food: A Most Powerful Need Ik tribe in Uganda forced to give up hunting and live on unfertile land � long standing social mores dissolve - people became psychopathic � “ngag, ” word for food, also becomes word for good � parents steal food from children, children from other children �

Hierarchy of Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Safety Needs � from physical attack � from emotional attack � from fatal disease � from invasion � from extreme losses (job, family members, home, friends)

Safety: A Most Powerful Need when frightened, our thoughts and energies are diverted � threat of, or actual attack creates “fight or flight” reaction � threats to safety can be physical or emotional �

Hierarchy of Needs Love & Belonging Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Love and Belonging (social/emotional) �Inclusion - part of a group: colleagues, peers, family, clubs � Affection - love and be loved � Control - influence over others and self

Love and Belonging: A Most Powerful Need

Hierarchy of Needs Esteem Needs Love & Belonging Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Esteem Needs emotional (ego) �respect from others through: awards honors status � respect for self through: mastery achievement competence

Esteem from Self and Others: A Most Powerful Need Congratulations

Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Needs B- Needs (being) Higher needs Esteem Needs D- Needs Deficit Survival Love & Belonging Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Some Self-Actualizing People from History Abraham Lincoln � Thomas Jefferson � Mahatma Gandhi � Albert Einstein � Eleanor Roosevelt � William James � Benedict Spinoza �

Self-Actualization Needs stop cruelty and exploitation � encourage talent in others � try to be a good human being � do work one considers worthwhile � � enjoy taking on responsibilities � prefer intrinsic satisfaction seek truth � give unselfish love � be just �

B-Needs of the Self-Actualized � � � � Truth Goodness Beauty Unity Aliveness Uniqueness Perfection and Necessity � � � � Completion Justice and order Simplicity Richness Effortlessness Playfulness Self-sufficiency Meaningfulness

Qualities of the Self-Actualized An non-hostile sense of humor � Intimate personal relationships � Acceptance of self and others � Spontaneity and simplicity � Freshness of appreciation � More peak experiences � Democratic values � Independence �

Peak Experiences Moments of Pure Bliss

Alfred Bandura Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognition Bandura proposed two factors as the major components of relatively permanent change: • Context • Beliefs There is a similar relationship between: • Piaget and Information Processing • Vygotsky and Social Cognition

Social Cognition Bandura developed the concept of reciprocal determinism to account for human behavior. OVERT BEHAVIOR PERSONAL FACTORS ENVIRONMENT

Social Cognition Bandura believes that human beings have specific abilities and that only reciprocal determinism can explain their operation and interaction: • Model and imitate • Self-reflect • Regulate own behavior

Observational Learning Bandura’s earlier work on observational learning set the stage for his work in social cognition. Observational (or social) learning proposed two primary modes of learning: • Modeling • Imitation

Observational Learning Bandura hypothesized a four-step pattern that combined a cognitive and operant view of learning. Attention notices something in the environment Retention remembers what was noticed Reproduction Motivation produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed consequence changes the probability the behavior will be emitted again

Observational Learning In a set of well-known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their behavior by simply watching others. He observed three different groups of children: • One group of children saw the child praised for aggressive behavior

Observational Learning In a set of well-known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their behavior by simply watching others. He observed three different groups of children: • A second group saw the child to go sit down in a corner and was not allowed to play with the toys.

Observational Learning In a set of well-known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their behavior by simply watching others. He observed three different groups of children: • A third group saw a film with the child simply walking out of the room.

Observational Learning Bandura and his colleagues also demonstrated that viewing aggression by cartoon characters produces more aggressive behavior than viewing live or filmed aggressive behavior by adults. Additionally, they demonstrated that having children view prosocial behavior can reduce displays of aggressive behavior.

Self-Efficacy Self-reflection is a second human quality and is expressed in the concept of self-efficacy. “Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations. ” (Bandura, 1986)

Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy impacts: • The choices we make • The effort we put forth • How long we persist when we confront obstacles (especially in the face of failure) • How we feel about ourselves, others, the task, etc.

Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is influenced by: • Mastery experiences • Vicarious experiences • Social persuasions • Physiological states

Self-Regulation Self-regulation is a third human capability and has several subfunctions: • Goal-setting • Self-observation and monitoring • Performance judgment and evaluation • Self-reaction (e. g. , self-satisfaction, self-worth, distress)

Social Cognition Bandura’s basic position is that “People's level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively the case. ”

BF Skinner

Basic Premise � Behavior can be controlled by consequences- type of reinforcement following the behavior

Kinds of Behavior : Respondent and Operant � Respondent behavior: responses made to/elicited by specific environmental stimuli �Ex: Reflexes (knee jerk) Depends on reinforcement, directly related to physical stimulus � Conditioning: Higher level respondent behavior � �Learning to substitute one stimulus for another

Respondent Behavior and Conditioning � Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning �Dogs salivate to neutral stimulus (sound of owner’s feet) when previously only salivated to sight of food �Began sounding bell before and after feeding dogs �Eventually began to salivate to sound of bell ○ Demonstrates new meaning to previously neutral stimulus (sound of bell)

Conditioned Responses � Reinforcement (consequences of behavior) �Dogs learn to respond to bell because reward follows (food) �Strengthens response, increases likelihood of repeating response in future � Extinction �Reinforcement is no longer given following the conditioned stimulus �Dogs not given food after sound of bell, salivation response eventually stops

Kinds of Behavior: Operant Behavior � Not all behavior is a direct response to environmental stimuli (respondent beh. ) � Nature and frequency of behavior determined by reinforcement following behavior � Behavior that operates on the environment and changes it

Operant Conditioning � Change in consequences of response will affect the rate at which the response occurs � Most of human behavior learned this way � Behaviors that work are frequently displayed; ineffective behaviors are not repeated � Personality

Schedules of Reinforcement � Patterns of rates of providing or withholding reinforcers � In everyday life, behavior is rarely reinforced every time it occurs

Successive Approximation � Acquiring complex behaviors � Reinforce as behavior comes closer to resembling the desired final behavior �Ex: Child learning to speak

Self-Control of Behavior � Behavior is controlled/modified by external sources � Nothing inside us (no internal processes) determines behavior � We can alter the impact of external events through self-control

Self-Control Strategies � Stimulus avoidance: Stay away from certain external stimuli � Self-administered satiation: Cure bad habits by overdoing the behavior � Aversive stimulation: Unpleasant consequences � Self-reinforcement: Reward ourselves

Applying Operant Conditioning: Behavior Modification � Behavior modification: apply principles of reinforcement to bring about behavioral changes � Token economy: tokens given as reinforcement for positive behaviors, later redeem tokens for rewards

Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement and Punishment � Positive reinforcement: Strengthen response by providing desirable rewards �Ex: Token economy � Negative reinforcement: Strengthen response by removing aversive stimuli �Ex: Prisoners-early release for good behavior � Punishment: Use aversive stimulus following response to decrease likelihood of behavior in the future

Assessment in Skinner’s Theory � Functional Analysis �Frequency of behavior �Situation in which behavior occurs �Reinforcement for behavior � Must be evaluated to implement behavior modification plan

Direct Observation of Behavior � Direct observation � Self-reports: interviews and questionnaires � Physiological measurement: heart rate, muscle tension, brain waves �See effects of various stimuli on the body

Research: Reversal Experimental Design Baseline: Subject’s normal behavior before beginning experiment � Conditioning: IV introduced- should produce a change from baseline behavior � Reversal: Remove IV influence to determine if IV is responsible for change from baseline behavior � Reconditioning: Reintroduce IV provided it is responsible for change from baseline behavior �