Module 2 Research Strategies How Psychologists Ask and

Module 2 Research Strategies How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions -I-

Our intuition and common sense z Hindsight Bias ywe tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it ythe “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon z Overconfidence ywe tend to think that we know more than we do z Perceiving order in random events y. Our eagerness to make sense of the world We overestimate our own intuition

Thinking Critically With Psychological Science z To believe with certainty, we must begin by doubting z. Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions yexamines assumptions yidentifies hidden values yevaluates evidence yassesses conclusions

The Scientific Method z. The Process of Research y. Observing a phenomenon y. Formulating an idea y. Testing an idea y. Generalizing or refining the idea

The Scientific Method z Formulating an idea y. Initial phase of research, in which observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon z Testing an idea y. Organizing countless observations into a theory y. Formulating testable predictions: hypotheses y. Testing the hypotheses x. Using operational definitions of concepts y. Generalizing or refining the idea

The Scientific Method z. Theory an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. y. Theory explains the underlying reason of the observed phenomenon y. Produce hypotheses z. Hypothesis a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise theory.

The Scientific Method Theory explains the underlying reason WHY?

Testing hypotheses using operational definitions z. Operational Definition ya statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables y. Also enables other researchers to replicate yexamplexintelligence may be operationally defined as the score obtained from the intelligence test measures x. Psychological well-being can be operationally defined as high level of life satisfaction and low depression. x. Academic success can be operationally defined as GPA.

The Scientific Method z. Replication yrepeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances yusually with different participants in different situations ythe research findings can be generalizable to other samples/situations.

Methods of psychology 1. Description (to describe) 2. Correlation (to predict) 3. Experimentation (to understand)

Methods of psychology 1. To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct: • • • Case studies Surveys Observations (naturalistic / lab)

Description Case Study yobservation technique in which on individual (or few incidences) are studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals x. Studies of brain damaged individuals x. Piaget y. Suggest hypotheses for further studies y. Problems? ? x. May be unrepresentative

Description Survey y. Looks at many cases with less depth. y. Ask people to report thier behaviors or opinions. y. Market surveys y. Koç University student satisfaction survey y. Problems? ?

Who do we survey? z. Usually question a representative, random sample of people seleced from a population. y. Population xall the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study y. Random Sample xa sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

How do we ask questions? If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law? Should be 39. 4 % Oppose 60. 6 % If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law because it would be too difficult to enforce? Should be 26. 0 % Oppose 74. 0 %

Description Naturalistic Observation yobserving and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations (or in more controlled environments) without trying to manipulate and control the situation y. Dating behaviors of Koç University students? y. Problems?

Methods of psychology 2. To predict human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct - Correlational studies: the examination of the quantitative relationships between two or more variables yhow does one behavior relate to the occurrence of another behavior? yif we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior?

Variable Defined z Any characteristic or attribute that varies in amount and kind y. Gender y. Success y. Weight, Height y. Self-esteem y. Reaction time in a learning experiment y. Intelligence y. Achievement motivation

Correlation § Correlation Coefficient § a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +. 37 Indicates strength of relationship (0. 00 to 1. 00)

Correlation does not imply causation Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships (1) Low self-esteem could cause Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition Low self-esteem could cause and Depression