Mobilizing for War Military forces largely volunteer on

Mobilizing for War • Military forces largely volunteer on both sides • New military technology utilized – Infantry rifle was most lethal weapon of war – Infantry tactics gradually adjusted to new weapon • General technology shaped course/outcome of war – Railroad and steamship transported supplies and soldiers – Telegraph provided for better communication

Navies, the Blockade, and Foreign Relations • South employed “King Cotton diplomacy” – Hoped to win British support through lure of cotton exports – Exports complicated by Northern blockade of Southern ports • Blockade seriously crippled Southern economy

Principal Military Campaigns of the Civil War

NATIVE AMERICANS AND THE CIVIL WAR

• The southeast • At one time this region had one of the largest and diverse groups of Native Americans • However from Carolina to Mississippi the colonial period forward had ravaged this area • War • Disease • Removal west • Had all devastated the original people of this region

• Those that remained were faced with • Increased efforts to extended state jurisdiction over them and their lands • Increased racist treatment towards them • By the time two white armies began fighting in their lands • Many had Unionists in a effort to preserve their lives and their communities

• One such group were the Pamunkey’s of Virginia • Mostly employed as guides and spies for the northern army • Their land lay in the route of Mc. Clellan’s delayed peninsula campaign • The Pamunky Indians are descendents of the Powhatan empire • But had gradually been forced into one of the two main racial identities of the south – Non-white

• 1802 all free non whites were required to carry their proof of freedom at all times • This included Native Americans who had never been anything but free • No certificate could mean arrest and sale into slavery • 1843 the ‘Gregory petition’ was drawn up attempt to claim that they were no longer Indian and therefore land could be taken • 1859 a result of John Brown’s attack on Harpers Ferry • All Pamunkey were disarmed

• By the time Virginia seceded on April 4 1861 • Descendents of the Powhattan empire had little love for Virginian • Local officials had circumscribed their world – Economically – Politically – Socially • As “Free persons of color” they were linked with freed slaves and subject to racist attitudes

• Mc. Clellan, hesitant in warfare, was an excellent planner • When he began on the peninsular campaign he had excellent knowledge of the complex terrain • Most of which came from Native American scouts such as the Pamunkey • Utilized by the Union army as – Land guides – River Pilots – Spies

• Terrill Bradby • Most documented Pamuncky to serve • Born William Terrill Bradby in 1803 • No formal education • Married in 1850 – 4 children • Reported to be between 5’ 6” – 5’ 8” and approx 170 lbs

• Enlisted in the Union Army in May 1862 • Illiterate and recruiting officer wrote name • Initially her served as a land guide for the advancing Union army • Also for Allan Pinkerton’s Secret Service as a spy • Gathering intelligence on Confederate positions and movements

• In 1863 transferred to water duty • Served initially as a pilot second class on the James River • May 1864 became pilot in North Atlantic Blockading Squadron – Union attempt to strangle confederate war effort • Served on the – USS Schockhon – USS Onondaga – USS Huron • Service ended on May 29, 1865 • Received a war pension

• After war went on to be a “show Indian” • Giving information on culture to anthropologists • Also was ‘put on display’ at the Chicago World fair of 1893 • Remained a respected member of the Pamunkey community until his death in the early twentieth century

The Cherokee

• The Cherokee had been challenged and damaged, as much if not more than other groups, during removal • During the Trail of Tears and subsequent relocation in Indian territory thousands of Cherokee had died • Frictions from removal, between the Ross faction and the Treaty faction, continued in their new homes

• When the battle of the Americans arrived on Cherokee lands • There developed a civil war within a civil war • Cherokees served for both sides during the American Civil War • Many Cherokee served as Unionists • Particularly in the Kansas Indian Home Guard – Usually union Cherokee were supporters of Ross

• In addition approximately 3000 Cherokee served for the Confederate States of America – Usually Treaty Party supporters • During the war – Military death – Disease – Starvation – Impoverishment • reduce the Cherokee population from 21, 000 to 15, 000

As early as 1863 1/3 of married women were widows ¼ of children were orphans The most well known and effective Cherokee leader with the confederacy was Stand Waite • Born December 1806 • Indian Name • • – Degadoga “He Stands [on two feet] • Christian name • Issac S. Waite • Became know as Stand Waite

• In October 1861 the Confederacy, led in negotiations by Albert Pike, signed the Pike. Cherokee treaty • This committed the Confederacy and Cherokee to support each other • Led to a split between northern and southern Cherokee • Waite had been made a Colonel in the CSA 3 months before this • Shows his strong identification with the confederacy

• The majority of Waite’s career as a confederate officer was based in Indian territory • He and his supports constantly harried and attacked both Union soldiers • And enemy Cherokees – Not always the same • Support not constant from CSA • But Waite remained loyal – Looking to the future of power structure in the Cherokee as much as supporting the CSA

• CSA made Waite a Brigadier General in spring of 1864 • He was an efficient military leader • Considered to be the best CSA leader in the west at the end of the war • Two big victories • First was the capture of • The J. R. Williams • A Union supply ship • Provided goods for CSA and disrupted Union supply lines

• The second was his joint raid deep into enemy territory over 15 days in September 1864 • Waite along with General Richard Gano • Ventured 400 miles in to Kansas • Union held • Once again skillfully attacked and harried Union troops along with capturing supplies • At the battle of Cabin Creek, Sept. 19 1864 captured – 129 wagons full of supplies and 740 mules – Killed 200 Union soldiers and took 120 prisoners

• June 23, 1865 • A man in a tattered CSA uniform • At the head of a cavalry detachment • Rode to a meeting place 12 miles from Doaksville in the Choctaw territory • This was to be the scene of Waites Surrender • 2 months after Lee surrendered

• Today’s lecture contains some disturbing historical images

1877 strike • It began in Baltimore, on July 16 th 1877 were a spontaneous action led to a walk out of employees on the B + O railway. • Demands for fair wages and safe working conditions • Railroad executives had issued across-the-board pay cuts in response to an economic downturn • At least 100 people were killed.

• The troops used to put down the strike were those government brought back from the south under the compromise of 1877 • The Railway also became the conduit for the news of the strike. • Further strikes in • Pittsburgh • Chicago • St Louis • San Francisco. • 80, 000 workers out in all

• Many people died in the Strike • Federal troops, Police, and private thugs sent in to break up the strikes • Pitched battles • Government determined to protect big business • In San Francisco, we saw a racial component within the discussion of the strike • Chinese workers became the targets of blame.

The rise of Jim Crow Laws in the south • In February 1843 group of four white men from Virginia, billed as the "Virgina Minstrels", applied black cork to their faces and performed a song-anddance act in a small hall in New York City • Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice was a white actor

• The removal of troops from the south allowed for a resurgence of white dominance and control • Segregation became in many ways more rigidly enforced • 1890 s Jim Crow Laws • Legal rights subject to • Residency requirements • Literacy requirements • Poll taxes

• What had been the custom of segregation and supposed white superiority (de facto segregation) • Became enshrined in many laws – know collectively by the term Jim Crow • separated humanity into two races each with their own position (de jure segregation).

• As the laws were made by the whites ended up on top • Not just a desire to reinforce a dominant position • Also a desire to create a legal basis for punishment of those who failed to show what whites considered the necessary deference.

Introduction of Jim Crow Laws • 1890 Mississippi • 1895 South Carolina • Over the next twelve years all southern states bring them in

• Nurses No person or corporation shall require any white female nurse to nurse in wards or rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which negro men are placed. Alabama • Railroads The conductor of each passenger train is authorized and required to assign each passenger to the car or the division of the car, when it is divided by a partition, designated for the race to which such passenger belongs. Alabama • Restaurants It shall be unlawful to conduct a restaurant or other place for the serving of food in the city, at which white and colored people are served in the same room, unless such white and colored persons are effectually separated by a solid partition extending from the floor upward to a distance of seven feet or higher, and unless a separate entrance from the street is provided for each compartment. Alabama

• Racial segregation was not limited to the South. • This 1889 engraving depicts a man being expelled from a “white” railroad car in Pennsylvania. 1890 s Louisiana Separate Car Act - Plessey Vs Ferguson

Racial Violence • Along with the rise of legal punishments we see the rise of illegal actions • Lynching • 1882 -1890 – at least 1000 African Americans killed • 1892 – 162 killed in this year alone

• The racial violence of lynching • Graphically portrayed by • Billie Holliday • In the song • Strange Fruit

SOUTHERN TREES BEAR A STRANGE FRUIT BLOOD ON THE LEAVES AND BLOOD AT THE ROOT BLACK BODY SWINGING IN THE SOUTHERN BREEZE STRANGE FRUIT HANGING FROM THE POPLAR TREES PASTORAL SCENE OF THE GALLANT SOUTH THE BULGING EYES AND THE TWISTED MOUTH SCENT OF MAGNOLIA SWEET AND FRESH AND THE SUDDEN SMELL OF BURNING FLESH! HERE IS A FRUIT FOR THE CROWS TO PLUCK FOR THE RAIN TO GATHER, FOR THE WIND TO SUCK FOR THE SUN TO ROT, FOR A TREE TO DROP HERE IS A STRANGE AND BITTER CROP.

• Right: George Meadows, hanged by a lynch-mob, Pratt Mines, Alabama, Jan. 15, 1889 • Left: A lynched man with onlookers, Arkansas, c 1890

Ida B. Wells (1862 -1931), a vigorous campaigner against lynching in the 1890 s and later among the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

Ida B. Wells, A Red Record (1895) • LYNCHINGS BY STATES - 1893 • Alabama, 25; Arkansas, 7; Florida, 7; Georgia, 24; Indian Territory, 1; Illinois, 3; Kansas, 2; Kentucky, 8; Louisiana, 18; Mississippi, 17; Missouri, 3; New York, 1; South Carolina, 15; Tennessee, 10; Texas, 8; Virginia, 10.