MILLERSPOOLMAN LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17 TH Chapter
- Slides: 76
MILLER/SPOOLMAN LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17 TH Chapter 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control
Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? • Habitat • Hunted: early 1900 s • Partial recovery • Why care about sea otters? • Ethics • Tourism dollars • Keystone species
Southern Sea Otter Fig. 5 -1 a, p. 104
5 -1 How Do Species Interact? • Concept 5 -1 Five types of species interactions— competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism—affect the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosystem.
Species Interact in Five Major Ways • Interspecific Competition – occurs when members of 2 or more species interact to gain access to the same limited resources • Predation – when one species eats another • Parasitism - when one organism feeds on another by living on them • Mutualism – an interaction benefits both species • Commensalism – One species benefits the other is unaffected. pg 105
Most Species Compete with One Another for Certain Resources • For limited resources like food light and space • Ecological niche for exploiting resources • Some niches overlap – the greater the overlap the more competition • If one species is more successful the others, the others have to move, adapt by shifting feeding habits or behavior, suffer population decline, become extinct
Some Species Evolve Ways to Share Resources • Resource partitioning • Using only parts of resource – different parts of the tree or shore. • Using at different times • Using in different ways – eating different species of insects.
Resource Partitioning Among Warblers Fig. 5 -2, p. 106
Specialist Species of Honeycreepers This is called adaptive radiation. Fig. 5 -3, p. 107
Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (1) • Predators may capture prey by 1. Walking 2. Swimming 3. Flying 4. Pursuit and ambush 5. Camouflage 6. Chemical warfare Types Herbivores Omnivores Insectivores Carnivores
Predator-Prey Relationships Fig. 5 -4, p. 107
Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (2) • Prey may avoid capture by 1. Run, swim, fly – with highly developed senses. 2. Protection: shells, bark, thorns 3. Camouflage 4. Chemical warfare 5. Warning coloration – often black and yellow stripes 6. Mimicry If it is small and strikingly beautiful it is probably poisonous. 7. Deceptive looks If it is strikingly beautiful and easy to catch it is probably deadly. E. O. Wilson 8. Deceptive behavior
Some Ways Prey Species Avoid Their Predators Fig. 5 -5, p. 109
(a) Span worm Fig. 5 -5 a, p. 109
(b) Wandering leaf insect Fig. 5 -5 b, p. 109
(c) Bombardier beetle Fig. 5 -5 c, p. 109
(d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly Fig. 5 -5 d, p. 109
(e) Poison dart frog Fig. 5 -5 e, p. 109
(f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Fig. 5 -5 f, p. 109
(g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal. Fig. 5 -5 g, p. 109
(h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake. Fig. 5 -5 h, p. 109
Science Focus: Threats to Kelp Forests • Kelp forests: biologically diverse marine habitat • Major threats to kelp forests 1. Sea urchins 2. Pollution from water run-off 3. Global warming – warming oceans
Purple Sea Urchin Fig. 5 -A, p. 108
Predator and Prey Interactions Can and Do Drive Each Other’s Evolution • Intense natural selection pressures between predator and prey populations • Coevolution • Interact over a long period of time • Bats and moths: echolocation of bats and sensitive hearing of moths
Coevolution: A Langohrfledermaus Bat Hunting a Moth Fig. 5 -6, p. 110
Some Species Feed off Other Species by Living on or in Them • Parasitism • Parasite is usually much smaller than the host • Parasite rarely kills the host • Parasite-host interaction may lead to coevolution
Parasitism: Trout with Blood-Sucking Sea Lamprey Fig. 5 -7, p. 110
In Some Interactions, Both Species Benefit • Mutualism • Nutrition and protection relationship • Gut inhabitant mutualism – micro-organisms in cows and termites stomachs. • Not cooperation: it’s mutual exploitation
Mutualism: Hummingbird and Flower Fig. 5 -8, p. 110
Mutualism: Oxpeckers Clean Rhinoceros; Anemones Protect and Feed Clownfish Fig. 5 -9, p. 111
In Some Interactions, One Species Benefits and the Other Is Not Harmed • Commensalism • Epiphytes – plants that grow on other plants (air plants) • Birds nesting in trees
Commensalism: Bromiliad Roots on Tree Trunk Without Harming Tree Fig. 5 -10, p. 111
5 -2 What Limits the Growth of Populations? • Concept 5 -2 No population can continue to grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.
Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (1) • Population: group of interbreeding individuals of the same species • Population distribution - 3 types 1. Clumping 2. Uniform dispersion 3. Random dispersion
Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (2) • Why clumping? 1. Species tend to cluster where resources are available 2. Groups have a better chance of finding clumped resources 3. Protects some animals from predators 4. Packs allow some to get prey
Population of Snow Geese Fig. 5 -11, p. 112
Generalized Dispersion Patterns Fig. 5 -12, p. 112
(a) Clumped (elephants) Fig. 5 -12 a, p. 112
(b) Uniform (creosote bush) Fig. 5 -12 b, p. 112
(c) Random (dandelions) Fig. 5 -12 c, p. 112
Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (1) • Population size governed by • • Births Deaths Immigration Emigration • Population change = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)
Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (2) • Age structure – distribution of individuals of various age groups • Pre-reproductive age • Reproductive age • Post-reproductive age
Some Factors Can Limit Population Size • Range of tolerance • Variations in physical and chemical environment that the organism can live with. • Limiting factor principle • Too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance • Precipitation • Nutrients • Sunlight, etc
Trout Tolerance of Temperature Fig. 5 -13, p. 113
No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (1) • Size of populations controlled by limiting factors: • • • Light Water Space Nutrients Exposure to too many competitors, predators or infectious diseases
No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (2) • Environmental resistance • All factors that act to limit the growth of a population • Carrying capacity (K) • Maximum population a given habitat can sustain
No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (3) • Exponential growth • Starts slowly, then accelerates to carrying capacity when meets environmental resistance • Logistic growth • Decreased population growth rate as population size reaches carrying capacity
Logistic Growth of Sheep in Tasmania Fig. 5 -15, p. 115
Science Focus: Why Do California’s Sea Otters Face an Uncertain Future? • Low biotic potential • Prey for orcas • Cat parasites • Thorny-headed worms • Toxic algae blooms • PCBs and other toxins • Oil spills
Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So. California (U. S. ) Fig. 5 -B, p. 114
Case Study: Exploding White-Tailed Deer Population in the U. S. • 1900: deer habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting • 1920 s– 1930 s: laws to protect the deer • Current population explosion for deer • Spread Lyme disease • Deer-vehicle accidents • Eating garden plants and shrubs • Ways to control the deer population Suburbs, hunting, lack of predators, deer contraceptives What do you think the solution is?
Mature Male White-Tailed Deer Fig. 5 -16, p. 115
When a Population Exceeds Its Habitat’s Carrying Capacity, Its Population Can Crash • A population exceeds the area’s carrying capacity • Reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot • Population crash • Damage may reduce area’s carrying capacity
Exponential Growth, Overshoot, and Population Crash of a Reindeer Fig. 5 -17, p. 116
Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns (1) • Some species • • Many, usually small, offspring Little or no parental care Massive deaths of offspring Insects, bacteria, algae
Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns (2) • Other species • • Reproduce later in life Small number of offspring with long life spans Young offspring grow inside mother Long time to maturity Protected by parents, and potentially groups Humans Elephants
Under Some Circumstances Population Density Affects Population Size • Population density = # of individual of a species in an area or volume. • Density-dependent population controls – increase as population increases. • • Predation Parasitism Infectious disease Competition for resources
Several Different Types of Population Change Occur in Nature • Stable • Irruptive • Population surge, followed by crash • Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles • Top-down population regulation • Bottom-up population regulation • Irregular
Population Cycles for the Snowshoe Hare and Canada Lynx Fig. 5 -18, p. 118
Population size (thousands) 160 Hare Lynx 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1845 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 Year Fig. 5 -18, p. 118
Humans Are Not Exempt from Nature’s Population Controls • Ireland • Potato crop in 1845 • Bubonic plague • Fourteenth century • AIDS • Global epidemic
5 -3 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions? • Concept 5 -3 The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in response to changing environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession.
Communities and Ecosystems Change over Time: Ecological Succession • Natural ecological restoration • Primary succession • Secondary succession
Some Ecosystems Start from Scratch: Primary Succession • No soil in a terrestrial system • No bottom sediment in an aquatic system • Takes hundreds to thousands of years • Need to build up soils/sediments to provide necessary nutrients
Primary Ecological Succession Fig. 5 -19, p. 119
Exposed rocks Lichens and mosses Small herbs and shrubs Heath mat Balsam fir, paper birch, and white Jack pine, black spruce, spruce forest community and aspen Time Fig. 5 -19, p. 119
Lichens and Exposed mosses rocks Small herbs and shrubs Heath mat Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce forest community Time Stepped Art Fig. 5 -19, p. 119
Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (1) • Some soil remains in a terrestrial system • Some bottom sediment remains in an aquatic system • Ecosystem has been • Disturbed • Removed • Destroyed
Natural Ecological Restoration of Disturbed Land Fig. 5 -20, p. 120
Annual weeds Perennial weeds and grasses Shrubs and small pine seedlings Young pine forest with developing understory of oak and hickory trees Mature oak and hickory forest Time Fig. 5 -20, p. 120
Secondary Ecological Succession in Yellowstone Following the 1998 Fire Fig. 5 -21, p. 120
Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (2) • Primary and secondary succession • Tend to increase biodiversity • Increase species richness and interactions among species • Primary and secondary succession can be interrupted by • • • Fires Hurricanes Clear-cutting of forests Plowing of grasslands Invasion by nonnative species
Science Focus: How Do Species Replace One Another in Ecological Succession? • Facilitation • Inhibition • Tolerance
Succession Doesn’t Follow a Predictable Path • Traditional view • Balance of nature and a climax community • Current view • Ever-changing mosaic of patches of vegetation • Mature late-successional ecosystems • State of continual disturbance and change
Living Systems Are Sustained through Constant Change • Inertia, persistence • Ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances • Resilience • Ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a moderate disturbance • Some systems have one property, but not the other: tropical rainforests
Three Big Ideas 1. Certain interactions among species affect their use of resources and their population sizes. 2. There always limits to population growth in nature. 3. Changes in environmental conditions cause communities and ecosystems to gradually alter their species composition and population sizes (ecological succession).
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