Middle Childhood Physical Cognitive Development Chapter Nine Growth

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Middle Childhood: Physical & Cognitive Development Chapter Nine

Middle Childhood: Physical & Cognitive Development Chapter Nine

Growth Patterns Middle childhood growth pattern follows growth trends of early childhood Average child’s

Growth Patterns Middle childhood growth pattern follows growth trends of early childhood Average child’s body weight doubles; eat more than preschoolers needing 1, 400 to 1, 800 calories per day Food consumption needs to consist of healthy foods – grains, fish, fruit, vegetables School lunches high in fat, sugar and salt

Sex Similarities and Differences in Physical Growth Boys are slightly heavier and taller than

Sex Similarities and Differences in Physical Growth Boys are slightly heavier and taller than girls through age of 9 or 10 Girls have adolescent growth spurt and surpass boys in heights and weight until about 13 or 14 years old Muscle and fatty tissue about the same for boys and girls in early middle childhood By age 11, boys develop relatively more muscle, girls develop more fat

Overweight in Children Between one in six (16 -17%) and one in four (25%)

Overweight in Children Between one in six (16 -17%) and one in four (25%) children and adolescents in the U. S. are overweight Most overweight children become overweight adults Overweight children rejected by peers, poor at sports, and less likely to be seen as attractive in adolescence; at a greater risk of health problems throughout life

Causes of Overweight Heredity contributes to being overweight Overweight parents may have poor exercise

Causes of Overweight Heredity contributes to being overweight Overweight parents may have poor exercise habits, encourage overeating, and keep unhealthful food in the home Children who watch TV extensively burn fewer calories and are more likely to be overweight adolescents U. S. children are exposed to thousands of food commercials which are for fast food, sweetened cereals, soft drinks, and candy

Gross Motor Skills School-age children are usually eager to participate in group games and

Gross Motor Skills School-age children are usually eager to participate in group games and athletics By age 6 children hop, jump, climb, pedal a bike By age 8 to 10, children show balance, coordination, and strength that allow them to engage in gymnastics and team sports Neural pathways that connect the cerebellum to the cortex are more myelinated Reaction time improves (decreases) from early childhood to about age 18; however there are individual differences

Fine Motor Skills At 6 to 7 years children can tie shoelaces and hold

Fine Motor Skills At 6 to 7 years children can tie shoelaces and hold pencils like adults do At 6 to 7 years children can fasten buttons, zippers, brush teeth, wash themselves, coordinate a knife and fork, and use chopsticks Fine motor skills improve throughout childhood

Sex Differences Boys and girls similar throughout childhood except boys have more forearm strength

Sex Differences Boys and girls similar throughout childhood except boys have more forearm strength which is good for throwing or swinging a bat and girls show greater limb coordination and overall flexibility aiding them in dancing, gymnastics and balancing At puberty, sex differences favoring boys increases Stigma of “tomboy” may keep girls from engaging in more male dominated activities

Exercise and Fitness Physically active adolescents have better selfimage and coping skills Cardiac and

Exercise and Fitness Physically active adolescents have better selfimage and coping skills Cardiac and muscular fitness is developed by participating in running, walking quickly, swimming laps, bicycling, or jumping rope for several minutes at a time; however, parents focus on sports such as baseball and football which are less likely to promote fitness

Children with Disabilities Children with disabilities identified during middle childhood years when child enters

Children with Disabilities Children with disabilities identified during middle childhood years when child enters school Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) — child shows excessive inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity; the degree of hyperactivity is crucial in diagnosis ADHD typically occurs by age 7 ADHD affects ability to function at school ADHD sometimes over diagnosed to encourage better behavior at school

Causes of ADHD Genetic component to ADHD involving the brain chemical dopamine; brain imaging

Causes of ADHD Genetic component to ADHD involving the brain chemical dopamine; brain imaging has shown differences in the brain chemistry of children with ADHD children do not inhibit impulses that other children can control; ADHD may be due to lack of executive control of the brain over motor and more primitive functions Stimulants are effective with ADHD because they promote the activity of the brain chemicals dopamine and noradrenaline, stimulating the “executive center” of the brain to control more primitive areas of the brain

Learning Disabilities Regardless of SES or environmental enrichment, some children cannot learn how to

Learning Disabilities Regardless of SES or environmental enrichment, some children cannot learn how to read (dyslexia) or do simple math problems; these difficulties in learning are called learning disabilities Learning disabilities are diagnosed when the child is performing below the level expected for their age and level of intelligence, and when no other handicap such as hearing, vision, or retardation can be found The younger the child when remediation occurs, the better the chances of compensating for the disability

Origins of Dyslexia more common in boys than girls 5– 17. 5% of American

Origins of Dyslexia more common in boys than girls 5– 17. 5% of American children affected Sensory and neurological problems may contribute to dyslexia Somewhat heritable; 40% of the siblings of children with dyslexia are dyslexic; 25– 65% chance of being dyslexic is one parent is Circulation problems in the left hemisphere of the brain may contribute to dyslexia Problems in angular gyrus may contribute

Educating Children With Disabilities Treatment for dyslexia focuses on remediation Special education programs created

Educating Children With Disabilities Treatment for dyslexia focuses on remediation Special education programs created to address mild to moderate disabilities such as learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, mild mental retardation, and physical disabilities such as blindness, deafness, or paralysis Mainstreaming children into regular education classroom has been effective in minimizing stigmatization

Cognitive Development Thought processes and language become more logical and complex during middle childhood

Cognitive Development Thought processes and language become more logical and complex during middle childhood

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Child enters concrete-operational stage around age 7 Concrete-operational thought is

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Child enters concrete-operational stage around age 7 Concrete-operational thought is reversible and flexible; children can reverse mathematical operations (eg. 2+3=5 can be reversed to 5 -3=2) Children less egocentric and are able to engage in decentration (focus on multiple parts of a problem at once) At age 7 children understand law conservation of

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Continued Transitivity — if A exceeds B in some property

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Continued Transitivity — if A exceeds B in some property and B exceeds C, then A must also exceed C Seriation — ability to place objects in a series by age, height, weight; children can seriate two dimensions at once Concrete operational children able to engage in transitivity and seriation

p. 169

p. 169

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Continued Concrete-operational children understand class inclusion Teachers use Piaget’s theory

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Continued Concrete-operational children understand class inclusion Teachers use Piaget’s theory to find interesting and stimulating materials as well as to understand the child’s level of development Piaget believed teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among their students

Moral Development: The Child as Judge Piaget believed children’s moral development developed in two

Moral Development: The Child as Judge Piaget believed children’s moral development developed in two stages: moral realism or objective morality and autonomous morality Moral realism — behavior is believed to be correct when it conforms to authority or to the rules of the game; immanent justice or automatic retribution is part of moral realism; amount of damage of behavior is more important than the intentions of the misbehaving child At 9 to 11 years children engage in autonomous morality — moral judgments become self -governed

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional Level — children base moral judgments on the

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional Level — children base moral judgments on the consequences of their behavior; Stage 1 oriented toward being obedient and avoiding punishment; Stage 2 oriented toward good behavior due to the ability to satisfy one’s own needs Conventional Level — right and wrong are judged by conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong; Stage 3 focuses on being a good boy or girl in order to meet the needs and expectations of others; Stage 4 focuses on moral judgments met to keep social order; Stage 3 & 4 emerge during middle childhood

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Continued Postconventional Level — moral reasoning is based on

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Continued Postconventional Level — moral reasoning is based on person’s own moral standards; adolescents and adults participate in moral reasoning at this level

Table 9 -1, p. 172

Table 9 -1, p. 172

Information Processing: Learning, Remembering, Problem Solving Development of selective attention occurs during concrete-operational stage

Information Processing: Learning, Remembering, Problem Solving Development of selective attention occurs during concrete-operational stage Irrelevant information gets sorted out Sensory memory — visual impression of an object lasting for a fraction of a second Working memory — when children focus on a stimulus in the sensory register, it tends to be retained for up to 30 seconds in the working memory Memory function in middle childhood similar to adult-like organization

Capacity of Short-term Memory Described as bits or chunks of information that can be

Capacity of Short-term Memory Described as bits or chunks of information that can be kept in memory at once Typical 5 to 6 year old can work on two chunks of information at a time Adolescents can keep about seven chunks of information Failure at Piaget’s tasks may have been due to inability to hold many pieces of information at once Rote learning — simple associative learning based on repetition

Long-Term Memory Long-term memory — vast storehouse of information containing names, dates, places, events;

Long-Term Memory Long-term memory — vast storehouse of information containing names, dates, places, events; lasts indefinite amount of time Older children more likely to use rehearsal than younger children to remember information Elaborative strategy — relating new material to known material; English teachers use this strategy when children use new words

Development of Recall Memory ability good indicator of child’s cognitive ability 4 th graders

Development of Recall Memory ability good indicator of child’s cognitive ability 4 th graders more likely to categorize and recall pictures than 2 nd graders

Development of Metacognition and Metamemory Metacognition — children’s knowledge and control of their cognitive

Development of Metacognition and Metamemory Metacognition — children’s knowledge and control of their cognitive abilities; demonstrated by ability to formulate problems, awareness of the processes required to solve a problem, activation of cognitive strategies, maintaining focus on the problem, and checking answers Metamemory — aspect of metacognition that refers to children’s awareness of the functioning of their memory; older children show greater insights into how their memory works; older students more likely to accurately assess their knowledge as well as use suggestions

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement — what a child has learned such as in

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement — what a child has learned such as in specific content areas of math, English; acquired competencies or performance Intelligence — child’s underlying competence or learning ability Competencies underlying intelligence manifest themselves during middle childhood when children are exposed to formal schooling

Theories of Intelligence Spearman — intelligence has a common underlying factor g (general intelligence)

Theories of Intelligence Spearman — intelligence has a common underlying factor g (general intelligence) which represents broad reasoning and problem-solving skills Thurstone — intelligence consists of several specific factors or primary mental abilities (visualspatial, perceptual speed, numerical ability, ability to learn the meanings words, ability to bring to mind the right word rapidly, and the ability to reason); factors develop independently

Theories of Intelligence Continued Sternberg — believed intelligence consists of three parts or is

Theories of Intelligence Continued Sternberg — believed intelligence consists of three parts or is triarchic; three parts are: creative intelligence, analytical intelligence, and practical intelligence Gardner — believed intelligence reflects more than academic ability; theory based on multiple intelligences; multiple intelligences can include verbal ability, logical-mathematical reasoning, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Measurement of Intellectual Development Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale — originally used to help identify children

Measurement of Intellectual Development Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale — originally used to help identify children who were unlikely to profit from the regular classroom so that they could receive special attention; yields a mental age (MA) score which is divided by the chronological age score (CA) and multiplied by 100 Score today is based on same age groups’ performance

p. 178

p. 178

Table 9 -2, p. 180

Table 9 -2, p. 180

Measurement of Intellectual Development Continued Wechsler Scales — developed for use with school-age children

Measurement of Intellectual Development Continued Wechsler Scales — developed for use with school-age children (WISC), younger children (WPPSI), and adults (WAIS); groups test questions in subtests; suggests children’s strengths and weakness as well as provide overall measures of intellectual functioning

Table 9 -3, p. 181

Table 9 -3, p. 181

Fig. 9 -9, p. 182

Fig. 9 -9, p. 182

The Testing Controversy Cultural bias — scoring well on intelligence test requires a certain

The Testing Controversy Cultural bias — scoring well on intelligence test requires a certain type of cultural experience Culture-free — tests designed to address limitations of a culture; middle class children still outperform lower-class children; do not predict academic success as well as other tests

Patterns of Intellectual Development School may help crystallize intellectual functioning around age 6 As

Patterns of Intellectual Development School may help crystallize intellectual functioning around age 6 As the child ages, the intelligence test gains greater predictive power due to relatively stable pattern of intellectual gains as child matures Changes in the home, socioeconomic circumstances, and education influence changes in IQ scores

Mental Retardation Mental retardation (MR) — disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual

Mental Retardation Mental retardation (MR) — disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills; involves IQ score of no more than 70 to 75 Down syndrome children more likely to be moderately retarded; can learn to speak, dress, feed, clean themselves and eventually engage in useful work Cultural-familial retardation — biologically normal children that do not develop normally due to impoverished home environment; intervention programs can change MR

Giftedness Educators tend to look at children with outstanding abilities in academics, show creativity,

Giftedness Educators tend to look at children with outstanding abilities in academics, show creativity, leadership, distinction in visual or performing arts, or bodily talents as in gymnastics or dancing Sternberg developed WICS model of giftedness (wisdom, intelligence, and creativity)

Fig. 9 -10, p. 183

Fig. 9 -10, p. 183

Fig. 9 -12, p. 184

Fig. 9 -12, p. 184

Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences in IQ Lower-class African American children obtain IQ scores between

Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences in IQ Lower-class African American children obtain IQ scores between 10 and 15 points lower than those obtained by middle- and upper-class children African American children also score 10– 15 points lower than European American peers Latino and Latina American and Native American children tend to score below the norms for European Americans Asian descent youths outscore European youths on achievement tests in math and science; more likely to graduate high school and complete college; taught success takes hard work

Creativity and Intellectual Development Creativity — ability to do things that are novel and

Creativity and Intellectual Development Creativity — ability to do things that are novel and useful; creative children and adults solve problems where there is no tried and true solution; they take chances; appreciate art and music; refuse to accept limitations; challenge social norms; examine ideas that others take at face value; moderate relationship between IQ score and creativity Convergent thinking — process children use to answer questions on an IQ test Divergent thinking — child associates freely to the elements of the problem; more creative

Determinants of Intellectual Development MZ twins have a high concordance rate on IQ scores

Determinants of Intellectual Development MZ twins have a high concordance rate on IQ scores (+0. 85) MZ twins reared apart still show +0. 65 correlation Correlation between children and natural parents is +0. 48; for children and adoptive parents +0. 18; heritability between 40 & 60% Stronger correlation of adoptive parents and adopted children when IQ of adoptive parents was similar to IQ of natural parents Environmental stimulation increases IQ whether child is adopted, natural or low SES

Language Development and Literacy By age 6, vocabulary at 10, 000 words Semantic sophistication

Language Development and Literacy By age 6, vocabulary at 10, 000 words Semantic sophistication by 7 to 9 years old Subtle advances made in articulation during middle childhood Children use connectives (conjunctions) and can form indirect object-direct object constructions

Table 9 -4, p. 186

Table 9 -4, p. 186

Reading Skills and Literacy rates low for recent immigrants to U. S. Media involved

Reading Skills and Literacy rates low for recent immigrants to U. S. Media involved in transmitting literacy Reading involves perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic processes Children learn to read via books, street signs, names of stores and restaurants and the writing on packages; children from homes where reading material is plentiful read more readily Reading storybooks with parents in the preschool years helps prepare a child for reading

Methods of Teaching Reading Word-recognition method — associates visual stimuli with the sound combinations

Methods of Teaching Reading Word-recognition method — associates visual stimuli with the sound combinations that produce spoken words Phonetic method — children first learn to associate written letters and letter combinations with the sounds they indicate; helps with decoding Sight vocabulary — recognizing useful words such as one’s name, danger, stop, poison

Bilingualism: Linguistic Perspectives on the World Approximately 47 million Americans spoke a different language

Bilingualism: Linguistic Perspectives on the World Approximately 47 million Americans spoke a different language than English at home Bilingual children not mentally retarded Half of Spanish speaking children at home are proficient in both languages Bilingualism contributes to the complexity of the child’s cognitive processes Bilingual children understand symbols used in language arbitrary