Middle Ages Early High and Late Objectives Discuss

Middle Ages Early, High, and Late

Objectives • Discuss the major developments of the Early Middle Ages. • Discuss the major events of the High Middle Ages. • Identify and Discuss events of the Late Middle Ages.

EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 750 -1000 I. The World of the Carolingians A. Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire (768 -814) “kingdom of Europe” 1. Empire expanded to cover much of western and central Europe—a feat that won’t be achieved again until Napoleon. Forced conversion. 2. Governing the Empire-nobles, counts, and missi dominici, improved -but inefficient due to distance, church reform 3. Charlemagne as Emperor—”Emperor of the Romans, ” crowned by Pope Leo III. Now defender of the papacy and equal to the Byzantine emperor, and symbolized a fusion of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements. Father of Europe or New Roman empire? B. The Carolingian Intellectual Renewal or “Carolingian Renaissance” 1. Preservation of classical Latin studies in new texts made of parchment or sheepskin, written in Carolingian miniscule, copied by Carolingian monks. 2. Palace school—Alcuin served as an adviser on ecclesiastical affairs and leadership. Concentrated on teaching classical Latin and the liberal arts—basis for all medieval education. 3. Kept the classical heritage alive and maintained the intellectual life of the Catholic Church.

The Crowning of Charlemagne

II. Disintegration of the Carolingian Empire A. Charlemagne’s death 1. Son-Louis the Pious 2. Treaty of Verdun divided the empire among Charles the Bald, Louis the German, and Lothar (the “Middle Kingdom”). Struggles over land the emergence of two distinct cultures would disintegrate the empire. B. Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 1. Muslims (Spain) and Magyars-from western Asia (Hungary)-Christianized by 10 th century 2. The Vikings*-final wave of German migration; assimilated into European civilization and Christianized by 10 th c. ; led to locals searching for protection from landed aristocrats ad the emergence of vasalage.

Treaty of Verdun

III. The Emerging World of Lords and Vassals (9 th-10 th c. )—renewed invasions and disintegration of Carolingian empire. Protection needed. A. Vassalage-individual who serves a lord in a military capacity. Came from German society. Vassal granted land in return for fighting. B. Fief-holding: land subinfeudation 1. Mutual Obligations; advice, service, hospitality, and aids in return for fiefs and support C. New Political Configurations in the Tenth Century—new powerful lords 1. The Eastern Franks-Henry the Fowler (Saxons); son Otto I-greatest. Defeated Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld, encouraged Christianization, crowned emperor of the Romans—involved in Italian affairs, relied on bishops and abbots in governing kingdom (no hereditary worries). 2. The Western Franks-Hugh Capet, count of Orleans and Paris; only controlled land surrounding Paris (Ile-de-France); actually a loose alliance of powerful lords and not a unified kingdom under the king. However, Capetian dynasty would last for centuries. 3. Anglo-Saxon England-Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, defeated and created peace with the Danes. Strengthened army and navy, encouraged the translation of works from Latin into Old English (vernacular), and successors would establish a unified Anglo-Saxon monarchy. D. The Manorial System-agricultural estate operated by a lord and worked by peasants. Many became bound to the land as serfs. By 9 th c. -60% of population were serfs. 90% people worked the land.

Spring planting on a French ducal manor in March Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1410 s

High Middle Ages, Recovery and Growth 1000 -1300 I. Land People in the High Middle Ages; population growth doubled due to protection and an increase in agricultural production A. The New Agriculture-expansion of arable land 1. Technological Changes-iron, new plows (carruca), new horse collar and horseshoes, waterpower and the windmill. 2. The Three-Field System—by 13 th c. higher food prices due to higher demand which led to growing food for profit and rents for land which allowed serfs to become free.

II. The New World of Trade and Cities (expansion of trade, circulation of money, restoration of specialized craftspeople, and growth of towns. ) A. The Revival of Trade-Flanders (woolen cloth) and Italy (trade cities developed with trading ties to the Byzantine empire); trade fairs; money economy emerged with banking firms B. The Growth of Cities 1. Founding of New Cities and Towns-northern Europe, settled by artisans and merchants, usually near a castle or monastery 2. The Rights of Townspeople-obtained charters of liberties from the territorial lords (right to sell, freedom from military obligation, right for serfs to become free); oath called a commune sworn against their lord (bishops) with the bishops’ noble vassals and overthrew authority. Alliance allowed the communes to take over the rights of government. 3. City Governments-narrow definition of citizenship; citizens elected members of a city council (enacted legislation and served as judges and magistrates); only the wealthiest elected; 12/13 th c. executive leader called mayor; cities remained small and governments watched over city activities. 4. Life in the Medieval City-surrounded by stone walls, narrow unpaved streets, towers of castles and town halls, churches, most people merchants and artisans, pollution, threat of fire great. C. Industry in Medieval Cities-centers of manufacturing; merchant and artisan guilds formed-set standards (apprentice, journeyman, master within guild).

Fortified town of Carcassonne

III. The Intellectual and Artistic World of the High Middle Ages A. The Rise of the Universities (guild of teachers, guild of students) 1. The Origins of Universities— 11 th c. cathedral schools organized by the secular clergy (majority in France—intellectual center by the 12 th c. ); 1 st appeared in Bologna, Italy which coincided with the revival of interest in Roman law. 1 st in Northern Europe-University of Paris, then the University of Oxford and Cambridge. 2. Teaching in the Medieval University-traditional liberal arts curriculum (trivium-grammar, rhetoric, and logic and the quadrivium-arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). Lecture methods and oral examinations over a four or six year period. (B. A. /M. A. then go on to study law, medicine, or theology. ) 3. Students in the Medieval University-middle society, male, began around 14 and received degrees by early twenties, doctorates by 30 s to 40 s.

C. The Development of Scholasticism-philosophical and theological system of the medieval schools (attempt to reconcile faith and reason; scholastic method consisted of posing a question, presenting contradictory authorities, and arriving at conclusions). 1. Abelard-furthered a new scholastic approach; “By doubting we come to inquiry, through inquiry to the truth. ” Sic et Non, scripture vs. church fathers. 2. The Problem of Universals-12 th c. Reality (Realists vs. nominalists) and contradictions of the church 3. Aquinas-dealt with the conflicts F. Romanesque Architecture: “A White Mantle of Churches”-barrel vaulting, heavy walls, slit windows, and dark. Built by master builders G. The Gothic Cathedral-ribbed vaults, pointed arches-replaced barrel vaulting, stained glass, work of entire community, 1 st-Saint Denis near Paris,

South transept of Tournai Cathedral, Belgium, 12 th century.

The western façade and interior of Reims Cathedral, France

THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND THE GROWTH OF CHURCH POWER I. The Emergence and Growth of European Kingdoms, 1000 -1300; kings began to expand their power in effective ways—out of this will come the European states that dominate later European history (divine favor, alliances, conquests, commerce, etc. ) A. England in the High Middle Ages 1. William of Normandy-Battle of Hastings 1066 -defeated A/S forces with Norman archers. King of England/duke of Normandy; Domesday Book, taxation 2. Henry II-ANGEVIN dynasty; administrative and legal institutions (exchequer, common law, murder of Archbishop Thomas a Becket) (Wife-Eleanor of Aquitaine <previously married to King of France>) 3. King John and Magna Carta-forced to sign to limit power 4. Edward I PLANTAGENET and the Emergence of Parliamentunification of lands, formed in order raise taxes B. The Growth of the French Kingdom 1. The Conquests of Phillip II Augustus—war with Plantagenet England to gain northern lands back for France; quadrupled income and increased power 2. Philip IV (the Fair) and the Estates-General (royal bureaucracy and st 1 parliament) <fights with papacy>

THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND THE GROWTH OF CHURCH POWER C. Christian Reconquest: The Spanish Kingdoms 1. The Reconquest-11 th c. small Christian kingdoms in the north began to re-conquer land from the Moors (15 th c. ) D. The Lands of the Holy Roman Empire: Germany and Italy—used control of the church to unify, however, backfired under Henry IV 1. Involvement in Italy (no central political authority); tried to control and exploit areas 2. Frederick I (Hohenstaufen) (aka Barbarossa)—attempt to conquer northern Italian cities and ignored strengthening the German states; later made a financial deal and through marriage increased power over Rome (Holy Roman Empire) 3. Frederick II (HRE)-concentrated on consolidating Italian power and left German princes to rule selves (they chose an ineffective ruler – Habsburg); consolidation of either Italy or Germany doesn’t happen

II. The Recovery and Reform of the Catholic Church A. The Problems of Decline--politics vs. spirituality; bishops and abbots became vassals; spirituality and scholasticism declined in monasteries B. The Cluniac Reform Movement-abbey of Cluny founded by William of Aquitaine; renewed spirituality; elimination of church abuses; created a rededication to church ideals and spirituality throughout Europe C. The Reform of the Papacy-11 th c. ; free selves from political interference of lords 1. Pope Gregory VII and Reform—claimed Pope’s authority extended over emperors; wanted removal of lay investiture and if rulers didn’t accept then the Pope could remove them. Henry IV of Germany disagreed and refused. 2. The Investiture Controversy—Henry and Gregory backed competing candidates for the bishopric of Milan; Pope threatened excommunication and Henry called a meeting of bishops and had the pope deposed. The pope then excommunicated the king and freed his subjects from allegiance. Nobles and bishops in Germany rebelled, and the king travelled to Canossa to beg forgiveness. Concordat of Worms eventually settled in 1122 under a new German king and new pope.

III. Christianity and Medieval Civilization A. Growth of the Papal Monarchy 1. Pontificate of Innocent III-13 th c. a. interdict- imposition on a region or country rather than a person; forbade priests to dispense the sacraments of the church in order to pressure rulers to follow the Pope.

IV. The Crusades A. Background to the Crusades 1. Islam and the Seljuk Turks; 600 CE Muslims occupy Holy Land; 1070 Attack Byzantine Empire; Byzantine Church asks Pope Urban II for help 2. The Byzantine Empire—loses Anatolia to the Turks; Turks disrupt Pilgrim traffic 3. Causes: Europe begins to thrive Conversion of Vikings and Magyars Agricultural advances increase food supply Roman-Byzantine rivalry Great Schism, 1064 Benedictine reform causes Church in West to be more attentive to business and provides impetus to attempts to reassert control

B. The Early Crusades—reasons to fight: • Believed this was God command • Some wished for land power, and sought to rule new kingdoms there • Others wanted an indulgence 1. The First Crusade--Urban II calls for a crusade, 1095, noble class, captured Jerusalem by 1099 • Objectives - drive Turks out of Anatolia, Obligate the Byzantines, Provide occasion for healing Great Schism on Rome’s terms, Capture the Holy Land 2. The Second Crusade-1147 -1149, failure 3. The Third Crusade-reaction to fall of Jerusalem under Saladin; 1189 -1192; 3 emperors participated Overall: Eight crusades carried out • Defeated Muslim defenders four times, lost four times • Lack of interest, rising European prosperity • Repeated military defeats

Effects of Crusades • • • Fatal weakening of Byzantine Empire Vast increase in cultural horizons for many Europeans Stimulated Mediterranean trade Need to transfer large sums of for troops and supplies led to development of banking techniques As Europeans had more contact with the outside world, the Crusades began to tarnish the Church’s image Knowledge introduced to Europe heavy stone masonry construction of castles and stone churches Weakening of nobility, rise of merchant classes Enrichment was primarily from East to West – Europe had little to give in return Longstanding mistrust developed between Muslims and Christians

THE LATE MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

THE LATE MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY I. A Time of Troubles: Black Death and Social Crisis A. Famine and Population • The 14 th century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to weaken. • A declining population, shrinking markets, a decrease in arable land, and a general mood of pessimism were evidence of deteriorating economic conditions. • Starting about 1250, a “Little Ice Age” began weakening Europe's agricultural productivity. – The Baltic Sea froze, Alpine glaciers advanced, and in some areas, grain cultivation ceased. – In other areas, crops failed as a result of heavy rains. • Soil exhaustion made the problem worse. • The results were food shortages and famines. • During 1315 -1322, famine devastated most of Europe. – Agricultural productivity declined – Grain prices soared. – Diseases destroyed much of Europe's livestock, depriving people of meat and dairy products. • People starved to death or succumbed to disease. It is estimated that famine killed 10% of the population in the first ½ of the 14 th c. It also may have led to chronic malnutrition, which also led to high infant mortality and a higher susceptibility to disease.

B. The Black Death • In 1347, the Black Death struck Europe. Those bitten by infected fleas died horrible deaths within a week's time. Those who inhaled the virus died even sooner. • The plague decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy. The population of Florence, for instance, fell from 90, 000 to 50, 000 people. Within a generation, the plague wiped out 40 percent of the English population and nearly 60 percent of the population in northeastern France. • First major epidemic disease to hit Europe since the 7 th c. 1. Spread of the Plague-flea infested rats brought by the Mongols to the Black Sea and then through trade markets through Genoese merchants in Italy. 25 -50% of the European population declined between 1347 and 1351. 2. Life and Death: Reactions to the Plague • Live for the moment; wealthy fled to country estates, extreme behavior (flagellants and millenarians), anti-Semitism, preoccupation with death C. Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval 1. Noble Landlords and Peasants-Fewer workers meant higher wages and lower prices; resented by the aristocracy; freed peasants from servitude and manorialism weakened. Lords attempted to institute wage restrictions and new obligations; new governmental taxes. 2. Peasant Revolt in France-Jacquerie-class tensions; 100 Years’ Wardestroyed land stolen produce; massacres both sides 3. An English Peasant Revolt-over poll tax 4. Revolts in the Cities-manufacturers, industrial revolts

II. War and Political Instability • The governments of France and England added to these natural calamities by carrying out a series of long, deadly wars, which are known collectively as the Hundred Years' War (1337 -1453). • Disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe. A. Causes of the Hundred Years’ War • Quarrel over Gascony, France: Edward III, king of England duke of Gascony refused to pay homage to Philip VI (French king) and Philip seized the duchy…war declared on Philip. (1337) B. Conduct and Course of the War 1. Early Phases of the War. Edward III and son Edward “The Black Prince” wreaked devastation across villages and land—devastating to the French. All lands that were won were recovered by the French, however, and plundering continued. 2. Renewal of War-1415 -English Henry V renewed war when French dukes of Burgundy and Orleans were vying to control the weak Charles VI. Alliances were formed between Burgundy and England the English gained northern France. 3. Joan of Arc—inspired the dauphin and French armies through her faith and freed the Loire Valley from English control. The dauphin was crowned Charles VII. 4. End of the War-1453 Recovery of land (except Calais), unstable English government under Henry VI, and the death of England’s best commanders.

C. Political Instability 1. The Growth of England’s Political Institutions—growth of Parliament to levy taxes, drawing petitions, factional conflicts with nobles (War of the Roses) 2. The Problems of the French Kings. Burgundians and Orleanist factions 3. The German Monarchy a. Electoral Nature of the German Monarchy-hundreds of independent states (monarchy is elective and not hereditary-Golden Bull 1356; ) kings weak; 3 claimed the throne; unstable 4. The States of Italy-dictatorial citystates in northern Italy a. Duchy of Milan-Visconti familyhereditary despots b. Republic of Florence-small merchant oligarchy popolo grasso and the popolo minuto c. Republic of Venice-hereditary patriciate of 200 families (Great Council, Senate, and Council of Ten).

III. The Decline of the Church-conflicts with secular monarchies A. Boniface VIII and the Conflict with the State—Philip IV argued the right to tax the French clergy; Pope argued that he must consent (universal sovereignty vs. royal sovereignty); Pope issued Unam Sanctam 1302—Philip had the pope captured and brought to France for trial—died from shock; Frenchman elected next Pope (Clement V) B. The Papacy at Avignon (1305 -1377)-new residency of Pope Clement V (lasted 72 years)-decline in papal prestige and symbol of church abuses C. The Great Schism—Elected Pope Urban VI-returned to Rome and Avignon Clement VII; lasted 40 years; Europe divided D. New Thoughts on Church and State and the Rise of Conciliarism 1. The Conciliar Movement—Final authority must reside with a general church council representing all members; Council of Pisa 1409 -group of Cardinals met and elected a new pope-Alexander V (now 3 Popes). HRE Sigismund called Council of Constance from 1414 -1418 and Pope Martin V elected E. Popular Religion in an Age of Adversity: 1. Mysticism and Lay Piety-immediate experience of oneness with God (Meister Eckhart-western Germany; spread and called Modern Devotion by Gerard Groote); Brothers of the Common Life and Sisters of the Common Life-laypeople with no formal monastic vows. 2. Unique Female Mystical Experiences F. Changes in Theology-William of Occam-nominalism-truth of religion only known by acts of faith and not demonstrable by reason; created support for rational and scientific analysis