Metode Riset Akuntansi Measurement and Sampling Measurement l
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Metode Riset Akuntansi Measurement and Sampling
Measurement l Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to empirical events, objects, or properties, or activities in compliance with a set of rules
Measurement Selecting measurable phenomena Developing a set of mapping rules Applying the mapping rule to each phenomenon
Measurement Scales l Several types of measurement are possible l l Depends on what you assume about mapping rule Mapping rules have four characteristics: Classification l Order l Distance l Origin l
Types of Scales Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Levels of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Classification
Levels of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Classification Order
Levels of Measurement Nominal Classification Order Interval Classification Order Ratio Distance
Levels of Measurement Nominal Classification Order Interval Classification Order Distance Ratio Classification Order Distance Natural Origin
Sources of Error Respondent Situation Measurer Instrument
Evaluating Measurement Tools Validity Criteria Practicality Reliability
Evaluating Measurement Tools Validity is the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure l Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure l Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and interpretability l
Validity l Two major forms: External validity: data’s ability to be generalized l Internal validity: the ability of a research instrument to measure what it is purported to measure l
Validity Determinants Content Criterion Construct
Content Validity l The extent to which it provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study
Increasing Content Validity Literature Search Content Expert Interviews Group Interviews
Validity Determinants Content Construct
Construct Validity l Consider both theory and the measuring instrument being used
Validity Determinants Content Criterion Construct
Criterion-Related Validity l Reflects the success of measures used for prediction or estimation
Understanding Validity and Reliability
Reliability Estimates Stability Internal Consistency Equivalence
Practicality Economy Convenience Interpretability
Methods of Scaling l Rating scales l l Have several response categories and are used to elicit responses with regard to the object, event, or person studied. Ranking scales l Make comparisons between or among objects, events, persons and elicit the preferred choices and ranking among them.
Simple Category/Dichotomous Scale I plan to purchase a Mind. Writer laptop in the 12 months. q. Yes q. No Nominal Data
Multiple-Choice, Single Response Scale What newspaper do you read most often for financial news? q. East City Gazette q. West City Tribune q. Regional newspaper q. National newspaper q. Other (specify: _______) Nominal Data
Multiple-Choice, Multiple Response Scale What sources did you use when designing your new home? Please check all that apply. q. Online planning services q. Magazines q. Independent contractor/builder q. Designer q. Architect q. Other (specify: _______) Nominal Data
Likert Scale The Internet is superior to traditional libraries for comprehensive searches. q. Strongly disagree q. Disagree q. Neither agree nor disagree q. Agree q. Strongly agree Interval Data
Semantic Differential Interval Data
Numerical Scale Ordinal or Interval Data
Multiple Rating List Scales Interval Data
Stapel Scales Interval Data
Constant-Sum Scales Interval Data
Graphic Rating Scales Interval Data
Ranking Scales l l l Paired-comparison scale Forced ranking scale Comparative scale
Paired-Comparison Scale Ordinal Data
Forced Ranking Scale Ordinal Data
Comparative Scale Ordinal or Interval Data
The Nature of Sampling l The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, we may draw conclusions about the entire population
The Nature of Sampling l l Population element: the individual participant or object on which the measurement is taken Population: total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inferences Census: a count of all the elements in a population Sample frame: listing of all population elements from which the sample will be drawn
Why Sample? Availability of elements Greater speed Lower cost Sampling provides Greater accuracy
What Is A Good Sample? Accuracy Precision
Accuracy l Accuracy is the degree to which bias is absent from the sample Systematic variance l Increasing the sample size l
Precision l A measure of how closely the sample represents the population l Measured by the standard error of estimate
Sampling Designs l Probability sampling l l Elements in the population have some known chance or probability of being selected as sample subjects Nonprobability sampling l Elements do not have known or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects
Types of Sampling Designs Element Selection Unrestricted Probability Nonprobability Simple random Convenience Restricted Complex random Purposive Systematic Judgment Cluster Quota Stratified Double Snowball
Simple Random l Purest form of probability sampling
Simple Random Advantages l Easy to implement Disadvantages l Requires list of population elements l Time consuming l Can require larger sample sizes
Systematic l Every kth element in the population is sampled, beginning with a random start of an element in the range of 1 to k
Systematic Advantages l Simple to design l Easier than simple random Disadvantages l Periodicity within population may skew sample and results l Trends in list may bias results
Stratified l The process by which the sample is constrained to include elements from each of the segments
Stratified Advantages l Increased statistical efficiency l Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups l Enables use of different methods in strata Disadvantages l Especially expensive if strata on population must be created
Stratified Proportionate: sample drawn from the stratum is proportionate to the stratum’s share of the total population l Disproportionate l
Cluster Advantages l Economically more efficient than simple random l Easy to do without list Disadvantages l Often lower statistical efficiency due to subgroups being homogeneous rather than heterogeneous
Stratified and Cluster Sampling Stratified l Population divided into few subgroups l Homogeneity within subgroups l Heterogeneity between subgroups l Choice of elements from within each subgroup Cluster l Population divided into many subgroups l Heterogeneity within subgroups l Homogeneity between subgroups l Random choice of subgroups
Area Sampling
Double l It may be more convenient or economical to collect some information by sample and then use this information as the basis for selecting a subsample for further study
Double Advantages l May reduce costs if first stage results in enough data to stratify or cluster the population Disadvantages l Increased costs if discriminately used
Nonprobability Sampling No need to generalize Limited objectives Feasibility Issues Time Cost
Nonprobability Sampling Methods Convenience Judgment Quota Snowball
Convenience l Collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it
Purposive l Conform to some criteria set by the researcher Judgment sampling l Quota sampling l
Snowball l Individuals are discovered and this group is then used to refer the researcher to others that possess similar characteristics and who, in turn, will identify others
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