Method of data collection Islamic University Nursing College

Method of data collection Islamic University – Nursing College

Introduction The data collection methods used by researchers need to be objective and systematic. Objective: The data must not be influenced by anyone who collects the information. Systematic: The data must be collected in the same way by everyone who is involved in the collection procedure.

Operationlization: Is the process of translating the concepts of interest into a researcher to observable and measurable phenomena. N. B: There may be a number of ways to collect the same information. Ø Example: Measuring anxiety by measuring sweat gland activity or by administering an anxiety scale.

Measuring Variables of Interest Ø The success of the study depends to a large extent on the quality of the data collection methods chosen and employed. Ø There are many types of methods for collecting information. Ø Determining what measurement to use in a particular investigation may be the most difficult and time consuming period in study design.

Ø The method of data collection must be appropriate to the problem, the hypothesis the setting, and the population. Ø Selection of the data collection method begin during the literature review. The researcher begins to explore how pervious investigators defined and operationalized variables similar to those of interest in the current study.

Ø Operational definition translates the conceptual definition in to behaviors or verbalizations that can be measured for the study. Ø The construction of new instruments for data collection that have reasonable reliability and validity is the most difficult task. Ø Consistency means that the data are collected from each subject in the study in exactly the same way or as close to the same way as possible. It can minimize the bias introduced when more than one person collects the data.

Ø Inter-rater reliability is the consistency of observations between two or more observers, it often is expressed as a percentage of agreement among raters or observers or a coefficient of agreement that considers the element of chance (coefficient Kappa).

Data Collection Methods Ø Physiological. Ø Observational. Ø Interviews. Ø Questionnaires. Ø Records or available data.

Physiological data collection Physiological and biological measurements involve the use of specialized equipment to determine physical and biological status of subjects. q Such measures require specialized training. q Such measures can be : q 1. Physical such as weight or temperature. 2. Chemical such as blood glucose level. 3. Microbiological as with cultures. 4. Anatomical as in radiological examinations.

q These measurements require special equipment to make the observation. Example: Measuring temperature by a thermometer. q These measurements needs careful standardization of the procedures so that the instruments were all used in the same way. q It is important for determining the effectiveness of certain nursing action.

Advantages of using physiological data collection methods include: Objectivity. 2. Precision. (accuracy) 3. Sensitivity. 1.

Disadvantages of using physiological data collection methods include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Some instruments may be quite expensive to obtained. Often require specialized knowledge and training to be used accurately. Just by using them, the variable of interest may be changed. The presence of some types of devices might change the measurement. Example: the presence of a heart rate monitoring device might make some patients anxious and increase their heart rate.

5. Nearly all types of measuring devices are affected in some way by the environment. 6. There may not be a physiological way to measure the variable of interest. 7. If the device does not really measure the phenomenon of interest, the validity of its use is suspect.

Observational Methods Ø Sometime nurse researchers are interested in determining how subjects behave under certain conditions. Ø Observation is not merely looking at what is happening, but rather is watching with a trained eye for certain specific events.

Observational must fulfill the following: Consistent with the studies specific objectives. 2. There is a standardized and systematic plan for the observation and the recording of data. 3. All of the observation are checked and controlled. 4. The observations are related to scientific concepts and theories. 1.

Observation is suitable when dealing with: Ø Nursing process. Ø Parent-child interaction. Ø Verbal & nonverbal communication behaviors. Ø Activities and skill attainment. Ø Environmental characteristics Ø Description of sleep…. etc.

Types of observational roles in research: 1. Concealment without intervention. 2. Concealment with intervention. 3. No concealment without intervention. 4. No concealment with intervention.

Concealment Yes Intervention Yes Researcher hidden some intervention No Researcher hidden no intervention No Researcher open Some intervention Researcher open no intervention Types of observational roles in research.

1 - Concealment without intervention: Ø It is used when a researcher is concerned that the subjects behavior will change as a result of being observed. The researcher watches the subjects without their knowledge of the observation but he does not provoke them into action. (Example: hidden television cameras). Ø It usually used in observational studies of children ( developmental research).

2 - Concealment with intervention: Ø It is used when the researcher believed that by being open to the subjects, the subjects behavior would change.

3 - No Concealment without intervention: Ø It this case the researcher obtains informed consent from the subjects to be observed and then simply observes their behavior. Ø The observer makes no attempt to change the subjects. The problem with this type of observation is reactivity, Hawthorne effect occur when the subject know that he observed and change his behavior.

4 - No Concealment with intervention: The researchers were not concealed in their observations but they did intervene with the subjects. Ø It is employed when the researcher is observing the effects of some intervention introduced for scientific purposes. Ø

Debriefing when observing subjects without their knowledge you may violate assumption of informed consent. The problem is often handled by informing subjects after the observations and allowing them opportunity to refuse to have their data included in the study and to discuss any question they might have.

Structured and unstructured observations: Observation may be: 1. 2. Structured Unstructured

Structured Observations Ø Involve specifying in advance what behaviors or events are to be observed. Ø Preparing forms for record keeping such as categorization system, checklists, and rating scale. Ø The observer watches the subject and then marks on the recording form what was seen. Ø The observations must be similar among the observers. Ø It is important that observers be trained to be consistent in their observations and ratings of behavior.

Unstructured Observations Ø Unstructured observational methods: Are not characterized by a total absence of structure but usually involve collecting descriptive information about the topic of interest. such as participant observation and use of anecdotes).

Advantages of scientific observation: 1. It may be the only way to study the variable of interest (such as studying human behavior). 2. It may be the only way to ensure the validity of the findings. 3. No other data collection method can match the depth and variety of information that can be collected when using these techniques. 4. It is quit flexible in that it may be used in both experimental and nonexperimental designs and in laboratory and field studies.

Disadvantages of scientific observation: The problem of reactivity and ethical concerns. 2. Data obtained by observational techniques are vulnerable to the bias of the observer. 3. Emotions, prejudices, and values all can influence the way that behaviors and events are observed. NB: 1. Ø Ø The more the observer needs to make inference and judgment about what is being observed the more likely it is that distortions will occur. It is important to consider how observational tools were constructed and how observers were trained and evaluated when judging the adequacy of observational methods.

Interview and Questionnaires Interviews: Ø Are a method of data collection where a data collector questions a subject verbally. Ø It may be face to face or performed over the telephone. Ø It may consist of open ended or closed ended questions. Questionnaires: Ø Are paper & pencil instruments designed to gather data from individuals about knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and feelings.

When evaluating an interview or questionnaire the reader should consider: 1. 2. The content of the schedule. The individual items which should be: A. Clearly written so that the intent of the question and nature of the information sought are clear to the respondent (through pilot test). B. Items must ask only one questions. C. Be free of suggestions. D. Use correct grammar. E. Items may be open – ended or closed ended. 3. Order of items.

Likert Scales l l l When items of indirect interest are combined to obtain an overall score, the measurement tool is called a scale. Likert scales are lists of statements on which respondents indicate, for example whether they “strongly agree, “agree”, disagree” or “strongly disagree” there may be a neutral category which sometimes creates problems because it often is the most frequent response and this response is difficult to interpret. Fixed response items can be used for questions requiring yes or No responses.

l l Fixed response items have the advantage of simplifying the respondents task and the researchers analysis, but they may miss some important information about the subject Interview and questionnaires commonly are used in nursing research. Interview and questionnaires have the ability to obtain certain kinds of information, such as the subjects, attitudes and beliefs, that would be difficult to obtain without asking the subject directly. All methods that involve verbal reports, however share a problem with accuracy.

l Unstructured response format allow such information to be included, but require a special technique to analyze the responses (content analysis). l Because people are known to respond to questions in a way that makes a favorable impression (social desirability), so the researcher usually is forced to assume that the respondent is telling the truth.

Advantages of interviews and questionnaires: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Questionnaires paper and pencil tests are most useful when there is a definite set of question to be asked. They are desirable tools when the purpose is to collect information Less expensive than interviews Allow for complete anonymity. No interviewer’s bias such as nod of the head of the researcher may affect the respondents’ responds.

Disadvantages of interviews and questionnaires: If questionnaires are too long , they are not likely to be completed.

Face to face techniques or interviews Advantages Ø Are best used when the researcher may need to clarify the task for the respondent or is interested in obtaining more personal information from the respondent. Ø Always higher response rate and this helps to eliminate bias. Ø Telephone interviews allow the researcher to reach more respondents than face to face interviews, and they allow for more clarity than questionnaires.

Ø It is suitable for children, blind and the illiterate. Ø It can clarify misunderstood questions. Ø It has strict control over the order of questions. Ø It allow for richer and more complex data to be collected.

Ø Using a combination of interview of questionnaires to study a problem (multiple measures) gives a more complete picture that the use of just one measure. Ø Choices between interview and questionnaires usually depends on what instruments are available and their relative costs and benefits.

Records and available data Ø Records and available data are used when researchers are interested in examining information in a new way to study a problem.

Records or available data Ø Records or available data are forms of information that are collected from existing materials, such as hospital records, historical documents, or videotapes and are used to answer research questions in a new manner.

Advantages of Records or available data: 1. Saving time. 2. Allows examination of trends over time. 3. Decreases problems of reactivity and response set bias. 4. The researcher does not have to ask individuals to participate in the study (consent ).

Disadvantages of Records or available data: 1. Institution are sometimes refuse to allow researchers to have access to their records. 2. Individuals may be identified by records. 3. The researcher has access only to those records that have survived. 4. If the records available are not representative of the possible records, the researcher may have a problem with bias. 5. Records could be biased such as when studying socioeconomic factors associated with the suicide rate. These data are frequently underreported because of the stigma attached to suicide.

Critiquing criteria 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are all of the data collection instruments clearly identified and described? Is the rationale for their selection given? Is the method used appropriate to the problem being studied? Is the method used appropriate to the clinical situation? Are the data collection procedures similar for all subject?

Physiological measurement 1. 2. 3. Is the instrument used appropriate to the research problem and not forced to fit it? Is a rationale given for why a particular instrument was selected? Is there a provision for evaluating the accuracy of the instrument and those who use it?

Observational Methods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Who did the observing ? Were the observers trained to minimize any bias? Was there an observational guide? Were the observers required to make inference about what they saw? Is there any reason to believe that the presence of the observers affected the behavior of the subject? Were the observations performed using the principles of informed consent?

Interviews 1. 2. 3. 4. Is the interview schedule described adequately enough to know whether it covers the subject? Is there clear indication that the subjects understood the task and the question? Who were the interviewers, and how were they trained? Is there evidence of any interviewer bias?

Questionnaires 1. 2. 3. 4. Is the questionnaire described well enough to know whether it covers the subject? is there evidence that subjects were able to perform the task? Is there clear indication that the subjects understood the questionnaire? Are the majority of the items appropriately close- or open-ended?

Available data and records: Are the records that were used appropriate to the problem being studied? 2. Are the data examined in such a way as to provide new information and not summarize the records? 3. Has the author addressed questions of internal and external criticism? 4. Is there any indication of selection bias in the available records? 1.