Memory Memory Multiple Memory Systems Short and Longterm

Memory

Memory • Multiple Memory Systems – Short and Long-term Memory – Declarative and Procedural Memory – Explicit and Implicit Memory • Memory Processes – Attention – Consolidation – Organization and Retrieval • Improving Memory

Multiple Memory Systems

Multiple System Memory Models Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

Working Memory Model

Where Are Memories Located? • Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain--not just the cortex. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Anatomical Sites of Memory

Biological Bases of Memory Biological changes in neurons facilitate memory through long-term potentiation (LTP), which happens in at least two ways: 1. repeated stimulation of a synapse strengthens the synapse, and 2. neuron’s ability to release its neurotransmitters is increased or decreased. • ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Biological Bases of Memory (Continued) • Hormones also affect memory (e. g. , flashbulb memories-vivid and lasting images are associated with surprising or strongly emotional events). ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Dual Mode Principle

What are stored in Memory: Motor Programs or Internal Models • stored (LTM) (size will depend on practice) • planned before initiation • reduced attention demands

What is Stored? Specific vs. Generalized Motor Program general memory representation of a class of actions that share some invariant characteristics • relative time • relative force • sequencing or ordinal structure concerned with pattern of movement – not specific movement

Parameters Some feature of the movements have to be changed (variant) each time to make the movement fit the circumstance or goal • movement time • movement amplitude • limbs and muscles used

Variations in Movement Time • Can change speed of throw – Does movement pattern change drastically? • Armstrong (1970) – Movement pattern re-produced as fast as possible but proportion times remained the same

Recall Versus Recognition Recall • you must retrieve the information from your memory • fill-in-the blank or essay tests Recognition • you must identify the target from possible targets • multiple-choice tests

An Example of Recognition Vs. Recall • Research shows people are better at recognizing photos of previous high school classmates than recalling their names. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

The Memory Process Three step process…. 1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Three Box Model of Memory

Diagram of Three-Stage Memory Model ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e) Enhancing Memory

The Nature of Memory— Description of Three Stage Memory Model • Sensory Memory: briefly preserves a relatively exact replica of sensory information – Sensory memory has a large capacity but information only lasts a few seconds. – Selected information is sent on to shortterm memory. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Sensory Memory • A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. • Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory • Echoic Memory

Short Term Memory • The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM. • Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. • Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds. • We recall digits better than letters. Short Term Memory Activity

The Nature of Memory— Three Stage Memory Model (Cont. ) • Short-Term Memory (STM): temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory (LTM) • STM can hold 5 -9 items for about 30 seconds before they are forgotten. • STM capacity can be increased with chunking. STM duration improves with maintenance rehearsal. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Types of Rehearsal • Maintenance vs. Elaborative • Repetition vs. Meaningful associations ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM • Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. 1 -4 -9 -2 -1 -7 -7 -6 -1 -8 -1 -2 -1 -9 -4 -1 • Mnemonic devices • Rehearsal "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums. "

Long Term Memory • Unlimited storehouse of information. • Explicit (declarative) memories • Implicit (nondeclarative) memories

The Nature of Memory— Three Stage Memory Model (Continued) • Long-Term Memory (LTM): relatively permanent memory storage with a virtually limitless capacity ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Long-Term Memory (From Walker, 2006)

Types of Long-Term Memories ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Explicit Memories • Episodic Memories • Semantic Memories

Implicit Memories • Procedural Memories • Conditioned Memories

Encoding Information • Primacy Effect • Recency Effect • Serial Positioning Effect

Encoding Exercise The Ways we can encode… • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. • Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. • Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

The Context Matters!!! • Flashbulb Memories • Mood Congruent Memory • State Dependent Memory

Constructive Memory • Memories are not always what they seem. • A constructed memory is a created memory. • Misinformation effect

Forgetting

Forgetting: Memory Failure • prospective memory – remembering to do something in the future content – remembering what to do timing – remembering when to do it – absentmindedness • amnesia – anterograde amnesia inability to store new information and events – retrograde amnesia inability to retrieve past information and events

Forgetting: How Quickly Do We Forget? • Ebbinghaus found: – forgetting occurs most rapidly immediately after learning. – relearning takes less time than initial learning. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories • • • Decay Interference Motivated Forgetting Encoding Failure Retrieval Failure ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued) 1. Decay Theory: memory degrades with time 2. Interference Theory: one memory competes (interferes) with another – Retroactive Interference (new information interferes with old) – Proactive Interference (old information interferes with new) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number. • Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information. • Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information. Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriends name.

Forgetting: Interference vs. Decay • Key Study: Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924), subjects learn list of words either before sleeping or after waking. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Two Forms of Interference ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued) 3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories 4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded in LTM 5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-thetongue phenomenon) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Overcoming Problems with Forgetting (Continued) • Source Amnesia: forgetting the true source of a memory • Sleeper Effect: information from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because source is forgotten • Spacing of Practice: distributed practice is better than massed practice ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Biology and Memory Loss: Injury and Disease • Amnesia: memory loss from brain injury or trauma • Retrograde amnesia: old memories lost • Anterograde amnesia: new memories lost ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Biology and Memory Loss: Injury and Disease (Continued) • Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory • Why do we distort our memories? – Need to maintain logic and consistency. – Need to shape and construct our memories because it is more efficient to do so. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued) • Eight Tips for Memory Improvement: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Pay attention and reduce interference Use rehearsal techniques Organization Counteract serial position effect Time management ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued) 6. Use encoding specificity principle 7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning 8. Use mnemonic devices (e. g. , method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)

Storing Memories Long Term-Potentiation • long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously. • In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

Summary of three stages • SR: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss? • STS: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss? • LTM: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss? ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8 e)