Memory Information Processing Information Processing Model 1 Encoding

Memory: Information Processing

Information Processing Model 1. Encoding - getting information into the memory system 2. Storage - retaining the information over time 3. Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage

Encoding

Two Types of Encoding ¡ Automatic Processing ¡ Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing ¡ unconscious ¡ Place encoding info; without effort information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)

Effortful Processing ¡ requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort ¡ example: studying for a test

Processing Trends & Strategies How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?

Rehearsal ¡ repeating ¡ one information to encode it of the most important processing strategies

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 -1909) ¡ did memory studies w/ threeletter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi) ¡ conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain ¡ developed the forgetting curve (a. k. a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)

Rehearsal and Retention (From Baddeley, 1982)

Overlearning ¡ continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned ¡ rehearsing past the point of mastery ¡ helps ensure info will be available even under stress ¡ examples: playing musical pieces, sports

¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Poodle Tree Dance House Airport Sugar Child Ground Watch Squirrel Truck Building Hospital Pencil Terrace Lamp

Is the word pencil on the list? ¡ Is the word poodle on the list? ¡ Is the word ground on the list ¡

Serial Position Effect ¡ primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list ¡ recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Spacing Effect ¡ distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time ¡ massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) ¡ distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice

Mnemonic Device ¡ memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts ¡ Example: l Peg-word System

Peg-Word System ¡ the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized ¡ goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Mnemonic: Method of Loci ¡ person associates items to be remembered with familiar places

Semantic Encoding ¡ making the material meaningful ¡ encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall How do you make material meaningful? Self-Reference Effect ¡ make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life

Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Storage

Three Storage Systems ¡ three distinct storage systems : l sensory memory l working memory l long-term memory

Sensory Memory ¡ brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second) l echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds) l ¡ info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Working Memory ¡ holds info briefly before it is stored or forgotten (conscious, activated) ¡ holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers) ¡ can retain info as long as it is rehearsed

Long-Term Memory ¡ relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system ¡ holds memories w/out conscious effort

How are memories stored? ¡ each memory activates a specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons) ¡ long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)

Storage: Explicit & Implicit Memories

Explicit Memory ¡ memory l of facts & experiences examples: ¡ At what temperature does water freeze? ¡ What is your mother’s middle name? ¡ What did you eat for dinner last night? ¡ must consciously retrieve and declare ¡ processed through the hippocampus

Implicit Memory ¡ memory of skills & procedures l ¡ ¡ examples: ¡ how to walk ¡ how to read ¡ how to button your shirt retrieved without conscious recollection processed through the cerebellum

Memory and the Hippocampus ¡ damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories ¡ the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains

Memory and the Hippocampus

Think about this… ¡ What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day? Answer: He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time. But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.

Memory and the Brain: How do we get information into long-term memory?

How are memories constructed? ¡ ¡ memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info. when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces

Retrieval

Retrieval ¡ two forms of retrieval l recall - retrieve information learned earlier ¡ examples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short answer test questions l recognition - identify items learned earlier ¡ examples: multiple choice & matching test questions

How do we get to memories we need to retrieve? ¡ ¡ memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it

Context Effect ¡ enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info

State Dependent Memory ¡ retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info. ¡ physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine ¡ mood examples: happy, depressed

The Brain Documentary: Memory