Memory encoding Memory The Basic Problems Getting it

Memory-- encoding

Memory: The Basic Problems Getting it in Keeping it in Using it How are Memories created? How are Memories Stored and Retained? How are Memories Accessed and Used? Encoding Storage Retrieval “Encoding” is really used two ways: the process of stuff getting into long-term memory, and what exactly is happening in primary memory (that results in stuff getting in LTM)

A Basic Model of Memory Rehearsal Storage Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Long-term Working or or secondary Primary memory Memory Retrieval

The Role of Encoding What makes encoding effective? What happens after encoding?

Which factors determine what gets into long term memory? • • Emotion Repetition Thinking about meaning (depth) Effort/desire to learn

Memory and Emotion You’re our 10, 000 th subject, so you get a new car! Hard to study: How would you create an emotional experience in the lab?

Lab studies See if people remember emotional objects (like guns) in photos. They are remembered very well. But maybe it’s not the emotionality of the object, but some other property--e. g. , that guns attract attention because they are most likely to be “active” in a scene.

Emotion--lab study What’s needed is a situation where stimulus materials are identical, but in one case they elicit emotion, and in another case the same stimuli don’t elicit emotion.

Cahill et al • Slide show about kid visiting his father (the surgeon) at work • Some subjects told that when the kid got there his father was operating on victims of a car accident • Some subjects told that when the kid got there his father was participating in a drill of emergency procedures that included fake operations on realistic dolls.

• Everyone saw the same slides • But some heard a story that made the slides in Phase 2 more emotional

Flashbulb memories: • • Happen during very high emotion Resulting memory is very complete Resulting memory is very accurate Resulting memory is immune to forgetting

Memories of Sept. 11, 2002

Flashbulb memory Original study by Brown & Kulik asked people about their memory of the Kennedy assassination. People reported a lot of detail and were very confident. Researchers concluded that there is a special PRINT NOW mechanism.

Flashbulb memories of 9/11; (Talarico & Rubin, 2003) On Sept. 12, 54 Duke U. students asked to write details of hearing the news, (who told you, where were you, what were you doing, etc. ) and details of an everyday memory (party, sporting event, studying). Also collected emotion ratings Retested 1, 9, or 32 weeks later, and collected confidence measures

9 -11 memory accuracy

9 -11 memory confidence

Reminder Emotion Repetition Thinking about meaning (depth) Effort/desire to learn

Repetition On a telephone, which key corresponds to the letter “J”? X

Repetition On a telephone, which key corresponds to the number “ 4”? X

Repetition On a telephone, which letters are missing? “Q” and “Z”

Repetition • Sheer repetition does NOT necessarily lead to memory for the stimulus

Reminder Emotion Repetition Thinking about meaning (depth) Effort/desire to learn

Thinking about meaning “Depth” refers to thinking about meaning, and how the to-be-remembered material relates to things that you already know. Shallow processing means thinking about physical characteristics of the stimulus. Deep processing: “What does ‘cake’ make you think of? ” (“a birthday”) Shallow processing: “How many letters are in the word ‘cake’? ” (“four”) Note that there can be degrees of depth.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Shallow Deep

Results

Note • It’s not the case that deep processing leads to better memory because it’s harder; other experiments have checked for that.

Intention or effort is irrelevant Can it be true that REALLY TRYING hard to remember something means NOTHING to whether or not you remember it?

Effort to learn-- Hyde & Jenkins (1973) Deep = rate pleasantness Shallow= does word contain a “Q” or an “A”? Incidental memory task: you don’t know a test is coming Intentional memory task: you are forewarned about the test. Deep Incidental Intentional Shallow

Results 1. Depth has a big effect 2. Intent doesn’t matter

Summary Emotion Repetition alone Thinking about meaning (depth) Effort/desire/intention to learn

Limitations of levels of processing 1. Definition of levels and circularity (note that this is a problem with theory, not the data). 2. We can’t ignore what’s happening at retrieval.

Transfer-appropriate processing Does deep encoding always lead to better memory? Morris, Bransford & Franks (1977). . .

Results

Transfer appropriate processing: When processes are the same at encoding and retrieval, then memory will be successful; when the processes are different at encoding and retrieval, then memory will not be successful. (Note that this is another powerful idea that is dangerously circular. )

What happens after encoding? • The memory does NOT simply sit quietly, waiting to be recalled. • Evidence from retrograde amnesia

Anterograde vs. retrograde Anterograde Old memories mostly intact Old memories lost Retrograde Can’t encode new memories New memories encoded normally

Retrograde amnesia: temporal gradient Not all memories from the past are equally affected: recent memories very affected, distant not so much. Example: blow to the head. . .

Temporal gradient: how to prove? • How can we know if amnesia is worse for events from 1 year ago vs. 5 years ago? • We didn’t know we would need to test memory. . • Test for public events or famous faces

Mary Lou Retton, 1980’s

Golda Meir, 1960’s

John Mitchell, 1970’s

Bette Davis, 1930’s

Rudy Vallee, 1920’s

Babe Ruth, 1920’s

Normal subjects Memory performance Retrograde amnesics Years since event was encoded

BUT there’s an obvious problem. . . Clever solution: Squire’s TV test

• Test is validated with people who were out of the country for one year. • Subjects for real test: patients with retrograde amnesia (due to ECT) • Take a recognition test for cancelled TV shows

Temporal Gradient

Interpretation • Initially, memories are fragile • Memories must be consolidated after they are encoded • Consolidation is the process by which they become more stable, even if they are not practiced. • It takes years for a memory to be fully consolidated

Anterograde vs. retrograde Anterograde Old memories mostly intact Old memories lost Retrograde Can’t encode new memories New memories encoded normally

Further evidence: anterograde • If you have anterograde, you always have some degree of retrograde. • The parts of the brain that encode new memories are the same that consolidate them.

Important message about consolidation All memories are consolidated for years after they are encoded, even those that are not thought about—thus, memories don’t sit passively after they are encoded.