Memory CHAPTER 8 Lecture Outline 1 2 3

Memory CHAPTER 8

Lecture Outline 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What Is Memory? How Do We Encode Information into Memory? How Do We Store Memories? How Do We Retrieve Memories? Why Do We Forget and Misremember? Memory: What Happens in the Brain Memories in the Young and Old: How We Develop Disorders of Memory: When Things Go Wrong

What is Memory?

Memory Recalling Past Events and Past Learning

Memory Overview Memory involves three processes: Encoding: Getting information into memory in the first place. Storage: Retaining memories for future use. Retrieval: Recapturing memories when we need them.

Memory Overview Continued… Two Theories of How Memory Works Parallel Distributing Theory- memories are stored as part of a large integrated web of information. Information Processing Model - information must pass through three stages, or systems, of mental functioning in order to become a firmly implanted memory—sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory

Parallel Distributing Model Newly encountered pieces of information immediately join with other previously encountered pieces of information to help form and grow networks of information

Information Processing Theory Memory is similar to a computer Information passes through three memory stages during encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Three Stage Model of Memory 1. Information enters our… Sensory Memory – which holds everything we see (iconic), hear (echoic), taste, touch, and smell for a few seconds or less. 2. If we pay attention, it enters our … Working Memory -holds information for 30 seconds. 3. If we encode the information, it enters our… Long Term Memory – stores information forever.

Demonstration of Sperling’s Test of Sensory Memory

Working Memory Information you are thinking about right NOW including: recalled day memories dreaming problems what you are currently solving you are reading

Working Memory Working memory holds 5 -9 pieces of information. Chunking increases amount we can hold Best way to get and keep things in working memory is through Rehearsal (or repetition).

How Do We Encode Information into Memory?

Encoding To get information into long term memory, you need to encode it. There are two ways to encode….

Two Ways to Encode Automatic Encoding When you automatically remember something with NO effort Example: You didn’t have to work to memorize what you had for breakfast this morning.

Two Ways to Encode Effortful encoding When you have to work to memorize something. Example: Studying!

Different Types of Encoding Phonological- encoding based on sound. Visual- encoding based on how the information looks. People with amazing visual encoding skills have eidetic (photographic) memory Semantic- encoding based on the meaning of the information.

Best Methods of Effortful Encoding Meaning- we remember things better when we can understand what we memorize. Elaboration- the more we can elaborate (or expand) on the meaning and make the information personally relevant, the better we remember it! Organization- giving the information a structure that is more familiar Mnemonic Devices- cognitive techniques that impose additional or intensified meaning on various pieces of information

How Do We Encode Information into Memory?

Types of Memories We Store in Long Term Memory

How Do We Retrieve Memories?

How Do We Retrieve Memories? 2 Theories Search Process The person focuses on a specific question and scans his or her memory for the specific answer to that question. Activation Process The questions people pose to themselves activate relevant pieces of information that have been stored in long-term memory, after which this activation then spreads simultaneously to every other associated piece of information.

What helps retrieval? Retrieval cues- words, sites, or other stimuli that trigger a memory Retrieval tasks are easier than recall tasks because they have built in retrieval cues. Priming- activation of one piece of information, which in turns leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory. Context effects- we can remember things better where we first learned them.

Why Do We Forget and Misremember?

Three Reasons for Forgetting 1) Encoding Failure Never learned it in the first place. 2) Storage Failure Biological problem (head trauma or Alzheimer’s) 3) Retrieval Failure The info was encoded and stored but you cannot get it out of your brain!

Retrieval Failure: Three Reasons Why 1. Decay Theory 2. Interference Theory 3. Motivated Forgetting

Decay Theory Memory traces fade over time Based on research by Ebbinghaus who was the 1 st to scientifically study memory Memorized nonsense syllables Forgetting Curve Primacy effect Recency effect

Interference New or old memories that block the ability to retrieving information • Proactive interference • • • New info blocks memory of old information. E. g. , Can’t remember lyrics to new song because old songs keep popping into your head. Retroactive interference- • • • Old information blocks memory of new information. E. g. , Old phone number lost from memory when new phone number is learned

Interference

Motivated Forgetting Blocking out painful memories Suppressed memories deliberately try to forget Repressed memories memory is totally blocked from conscious awareness

Misinformation Effect Remembering things that never happened Common Reasons Why We Distort or Manufacture Memories Source misattribution- Attributing information you heard as your own memory. Exposure to misinformation- New information that is inaccurate or misleading can distort our recall or lead us to manufacture new memories Effects of imagination- Our own imagination can lead us to recall events that never took place

Memory: What Happens in the Brain

What Is the Anatomy of Memory? Prefrontal Cortex important brain structure located just behind the forehead and implicated in working memory. Hippocampus and other parts of the Neocortex the hippocampus is an important temporary storage site for long-term memories and a key player in the transfer of such memories into genuine long-term status in the neocortex. .

What Is the Biochemistry of Memory? Neural Circuits Certain neurons in the brain become predisposed to trigger other neurons Long-term potentiation Repeated stimulation of neurons increases the likelihood that the network of neurons will respond again and stronger in the future. Important to retrieval of memories

Memories in the Young and Old: How We Develop

Memories in the Young and Old Research suggests that memory and related cognitive functions peak at approximately age 25 Does memory decline as we get older? Decline in working memories, ability to encode new memories, episodic memories (recollections of past events), certain types of short-term memory, and the sources of information that individuals remember WHY? Smaller hippocampus Dementia and disease Conversely, the implicit (procedural) memories of aging people show little decline, several types of short-term memory remain strong throughout aging, and the semantic memories (general knowledge) of older people may actually improve

Disorders of Memory: When Things Go Wrong

2 Types of Memory disorders Organic Memory Disorders Biological cause Head trauma or disease Dissociative Memory Disorder No physical cause to memory loss

Organic Memory Disorders Amnesic disorders- just memory loss Antrograde- can’t form new memories “Hi. I’m Tom……. Hi. I’m Tom” Retrograde- can’t remember things before amnesia “Who am I? ” Dementias or Dementia- memory and cognitive loss Alzheimer’s disease- most common form (2/3 rds of all dementia) Caused by Neurofibrillary tangles (twisted protein cells in hippocampus) and Senile plaques (protein deposits in hippocampus) Gender differences?

Two Types of Amnesia

Dissociative Memory Disorders Dissociative amnesia: psychological disorder characterized by inability to recall important information, usually of an upsetting nature, about one’s life. Examples: rape, combat, abuse Dissociative fugue: psychological disorder characterized by loss of memory of personal identities and details of one’s past life and flight to an entirely different location. Dissociative identity: disorder psychological disorder characterized by the development of two or more distinct personalities. Subpersonalities alternate personalities each with a unique set of memories, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.