Meaning Representation The meaning of linguistic utterances can

意义表示 （Meaning Representation） • The meaning of linguistic utterances can be captured in formal structures, which we will call meaning representations. • 意义表示的计算要求 – Verifiability – Unambiguous • one representation -> one meaning – Canonical Form • one meaning -> one representation – Inference and Variables – Expresiveness

意义表示 （Meaning Representation） • 一阶谓词演算（FOPC） – 项（term） – 常量（constant） – 连接词（connective） – 量词（quantifier） – 变量（variable） – 谓词（Predicate） – 函数（function）

句法驱动的语义分析 • 为上下文无关语法规则 扩充 语义附着（ semantic attachment） • S -> NP VP {VP. sem(NP. sem)} • VP -> Verb NP {Verb. sem(NP. sem)} • Verb -> serves {λx∃e, y Isa(e, Serving) ∧Server(e, y) ∧Served(e, x)}

名词短语 • 复合名词 Summer light schedule • 所属名词短语 Atlanta’s airport • 含明前形容词的NP – I don’t mind a cheap restaurant – 交集语义 • λx Isa(x, Restaurant) ∧ Isa (x, Cheap) • small elephant，fake gun – 仅指出存在抽象关系 • λx Isa(x, Restaurant) ∧ AM (x, Cheap)

介词短语 • 修饰名词 – a restaurant on Pearl – ∃x Isa(x, Resuaurant) ∧On(x, Pearl) • 修饰动词 – ate dinner in a hurry – ∃y Isa(e, Eating) ∧Eater(e, y) ∧Eaten(e, Dinner) ∧In(e, < ∃h Hurry(h)>) • 作为动词的论元 – I need to go from Boston to Dallas.

Pattern-based Semantic Analysis • Train – sentence -> pattern • What is the revenue of IBM? • what be the X of E ? – assing semantic representation to frequent patterns • (? what, the X of, E) – generate semantic representation for unfreq patterns • what be the X of X , X ? – What is the total population of Melbourne, Florida? • what be the X of X ? – What is the official website of Tom Hanks? • what be the X of the X where X 's X V ? – What is the name of the school where Obama's wife studied? • Test – sentence -> pattern – pattern match and alignment – generate semantic representation (pattern, semantic)

Step 1: Pattern Generation • Item Types – E : named entities – V : normal verbs (e. g. VBX) – X : meaningful words (e. g. NN, PRP, CD, JJ, RB) – Struct: • other words except for E, V, X (e. g. , WHX, IN, TO, CC) – what, for, in, and, or • frequent words – many, there, have, be, do

Frequent Patterns • Free 917 – 458 patterns Pattern who V E what be the X of E how many X do E have when be E V when be E X what be E 's X what X do E X when be X V what X do E V where be E X how many X V in E num 42 40 19 18 17 15 14 14 12 11 10 sentence who designed the iphone what are the deities of hinduism how many floors does the white house have when was wells fargo founded when was the airspeed oxford first flown what are bmw's manufacturing plants what conferences does google sponsor when was savealot founded what lines does the london overground operate where was jerry seinfeld born how many teams participate in the uefa

Frequent Patterns • QALD 679 – 441 patterns Pattern give I all X. who be the X of E ? what be the X of E ? which X have the X ? who V E ? who be the X of X ? who V X ? which X have X than X ? how many X do E have ? what be the X of X ? num 17 17 14 9 9 8 8 7 sentence Give me all school types. Who is the author of Wiki. Leaks? What is the revenue of IBM? Which country has the most official languages? Who created Goofy? Who was the wife of President Lincoln? Who created English Wikipedia? Which caves have more than 3 entrances? How many employees does IBM have? What is the official website of Tom Hanks?

Complex Patterns • who be X under the X who V the X of X against X during X ? – Who was vice president under the president who approved the use of atomic weapons against Japan during World War II? • what X V [X and X for X V X from X] – what movies won ascap film and television music awards for most performed songs from motion pictures

Next • Syntactic Structure • Semantic Annotation

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