Marcus Aurelius r 161 80 AD Map Link

Marcus Aurelius (r. 161 -80 AD) Map Link: Territorial Expansion of Rome: <https: //www. lib. utexas. edu/maps/historical/shepherd_1911/ shepherd-c-034 -035. jpg>

Problems in the Roman Empire End of imperial expansion: loss of income, prestige, etc. Increasing influence of non-Italians in society, government, the army Increasing attacks on borders Increasingly centralised government Increased militarisation of state

235 Army murders Severus Alexander (r. 222 -235) 235 -84 Period of crisis: civil and external wars, plague, economic crisis, raised taxes 259 Persians defeat Roman army and capture Valerian (r. 253 -60)

Diocletian (r. 284 -305) Constantine (r. 306 -37) Map Link: Map of the Tetrarchy: <http: //neobyzantium. com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/ Roman-Empire-during-the-1 st-Tetrarchy. jpg>

Diocletian’s Reforms Multiple capitals: closer links between local governments and imperial government, so swifter responses Reforms of army: imperial bodyguards, mobile army and border defence forces. Soldiers no longer in civil administration Reforms of coinage, pricing, state building projects, annona (universal land tax)

Diocletian’s Reforms Improving loyalty by presenting self as earthly manifestation of Jupiter. Persecuting Christians

Diocletian’s Reforms Augusti: Diocletian Maximian Caesars: Galerius Constantius

Diocletian’s Reforms Retired 305: Diocletian Maximian Augusti: Galerius Constantius Caesars: Disputed 306 Constantine (son of Constantius) acclaimed by troops as emperor 312 Battle of Milvian Bridge. Constantine becomes an augustus (co-emperor)

313 Constantine makes Christianity official religion of the empire, though others tolerated 324 Constantine becomes sole emperor, establishes new capital at Byzantion (Constantinople): “Nova Roma Constantinopolitana” (New Rome, the City of Constantine)

According to Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260 -c. 339)…

332 Constantine repels (Tervingi) Goths 337 Death of Constantine. Sons fight over succession 337 -61 Reign of Constantius II 353 Constantius II reunites empire 356 Constantius bans public paganism 361 -63 Reign of Julian (the Apostate)

Problems of the Late 4 th Century Divergence of Eastern and Western Empires Foreign involvement: Settlement of barbarians in east Valentinian II (r. 375 -92), Western Roman Emperor, plus successor Eugenius (r. 392 -94), puppets of Arbogast Brief reunification under Theodosius (r. 379 -95) in 394 (Visigothic allies), but does not last

The End 4 th c. Accession of young emperors. Power held by regents, mostly from military or female relatives of emperors. Barbarians being bribed to fight each other 476 Last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475 -76), deposed by Odoacer the Ostrogoth. End of Roman Empire in west. Eastern Roman Empire remains, from now usually called Byzantine Empire

313 Edict of Milan 379 -95 Reign of Theodosius I (in east), who forbids practices of pagan cults 4 th c. Bishoprics becoming grouped together under archbishops. Particular prestige held by Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople 5 th c. Accession of many aristocratic bishops

319 Arius (d. 336), a priest of Alexandria, excommunicated for claiming Christ not eternal, but separate entity begotten by God Further teachings: Christ created so that God might create universe through him Christ sharing divine power but subject to sin

325 Council of Nicea summoned by Constantine, produces Nicene creed 330 -79 Arianism enjoys imperial favour 381 Council of Constantinople summoned by Theodosius I (r. 379 -95), outlaws Arianism

Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325 -392 or 395) Born in Antioch, Syria. Of Greek descent, probably noble Joined army in his twenties. Served until death of Julian the Apostate, whom admired Pagan, but not fervently anti-Christian After retired, travelled, then settled in Rome after 378

Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325 -392 or 395) Spent rest of life writing Res Gestae a Fine Corneli Taciti (or Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt), history of Rome continuing work of Tacitus (c. 55 -117) and covering years 96 -378 (ending with Battle of Adrianople) Uses mix of eyewitness experiences and written sources

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260 -c. 339) Baptised and ordained at Caesarea (Palestine) Possibly imprisoned by Romans Wrote immense number of works. Best known for Ecclesiastical History (revised 312 -324)

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260 -c. 339) Ecclesiastical History highly influential in development of church history, but open to criticism 313 Becomes bishop of Caesarea 318 Becomes involved in Arian controversy 325 Exonerated at Council of Nicea 337 Death of Constantine. Eusebius starts Life of Constantine (unfinished - this text)