mar Morphology was shown to deal with the

mar Morphology was shown to deal with the internal structure of words. When words are put together to form longer units, up to the sentence, is the area of Syntax. Because these two areas are interconnected and interdependent, they have often been grouped together and studied under the name GRAMMAR. * Traditional Approach : Grammar Morphology + Syntax * Modern Approach : Phonology+ Morphology+ Syntax+ Semantics

-Nowadays, the term Grammar includes much more than that. On one hand, it embodies the sound system of language i. e. Phonology; on the other hand, it deals with the meaning system, i. e. Semantics. -As quite obvious to you through studying Grammar courses, words are not put together haphazardly to form sentences. There are certain patterns that the words are strung together into and certain rules that govern word arrangement. -This is what we are going to learn in this unit.

WHAT IS “SYNTAX”? Knowing a language includes the ability to construct phrases and sentences out of morphemes and words. The part of the grammar that represents a speaker’s knowledge of these structures and their formation is called “syntax”. In other words, syntax is the study of sentence patterns of language. The aim of this study is to show you what syntactic structure is and what the rules that determine syntactic structure are like.

What meant by “structure” here, is word order. The meaning of a sentence depends on the order in which words occur in a sentence. Compare the following sentences: I sing because I am happy because I sing. The two sentences above have the same categories and number of words, but different in structure(words order); thus, they have different meanings.

SYNTACTIC CATEGORY Syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language which share a significant number of common. characteristics Syntactic categories commonly include: Parts of Speech: (Determiner, Adjective, Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, Adverb, Auxiliary, Verb), etc. ;

Phrase Structure Grammars: (Noun Phrase, . 1 Adjective Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Preposition Phrase); and Sentence, as the core of the structure.

The syntactic categories are illustrated in a. 1 tree diagram, called phrase structure tree , by supplying the name of the syntactic category of each word grouping. These names are often referred to as syntactic labels (usually written by the initials of the categories), such as:

Sentence : S, Determiner : Det. , Adjective : Adj. Adverb : Adv. , Noun : N, Verb : V , Pronoun : Pro Syntactic, Preposition : P, Auxiliary Verb : Aux, Preposition Phrase : PP, Adverb Phrase : Adv. P Adjective Phrase : Adj. P, Noun Phrase : NP, Verb Phrase : VP

The phrase: There are different kinds of phrases, depending on the head-word used in each. - Thus, a noun phrase NP consists of a noun (as the head- word) Examples: man The young man The clever young man in the garden

- The Noun Phrase = NP It is a group of words or ( a word), the head which is a noun or any structure functions as a noun : For example: Girl The girl The young girl The clever young girl in the park Notice that noun phrases don’t have a finite verb, but it can have, a non-finite verb : waiting.

Reminder: All verbs are finite except the following: - The infinitive : to come, to go - The present participle: coming, going - The past participle: come, gone -The young man threw the old dog a bone. -John built his eldest daughter a fine house IO DO A simple sentence may have more than one noun phrase.

- Verb Phrase VP: A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the words and word groups that belong with the verb and cluster around it. Examples: -went -soon went -was going home -was walking along the road -may have arrived when the plane was landing 1 -In this clause the head-word is the verb. The others that go with it may be auxiliaries, modifiers, indirect objects, subjective complements, objective complements.

2 - In the above examples we have: -Modifiers, e. g. : soon, out, along the road, when the plane was landing , - Auxiliaries, e. g. : was, may , have Here are examples on the others: - Direct object= ate an orange - Indirect object= gave Mary a dress - Subjective complement: is a doctor - Objective complement: elected him captain

NB … These are the two most important types of phrases because every sentence is made up of a noun phrase ( traditionally called subject), and a verb phrase ( traditionally called predicate).

Adjective Phrase = AP is a group of words with an adjective as the head word - which modifies the noun - describing words which occur with nouns. - The answer seems clear - The extremely difficult question Here the phrase precedes the noun question which it modifies.

Adverb Phrase = Ad. P is a group of words – with an adverb as the head word – that functions like an adverb. -Adverbs often add information in relation to circumstances of manner, time, or place. . Examples: - He is talking too quickly. - The baby cried loudly.

Preposition Phrase PP: is a group of words that begins with a preposition. Examples: - He always travels by train. - John is always late for class.

“A clause is a group of words which contains a finite verb but which cannot occur in isolation; that is, a clause constitutes only part of a sentence “ ( Todd: 63) - If it can occur in isolation, it becomes a simple sentence, but in longer sentences, especially complex sentences, we usually have a main clause and one or more dependent clauses.

What is “Clause”? 1. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate, and functioning as a member of a sentence. 2. A clause is the smallest grammatical unit that contains minimally a subject and a predicate, that can or cannot express a complete thought or idea.

There are two kinds of clauses: 1. Main clause (independent clause), a clause that can stand alone as a sentence (can make sense by itself); also known as a simplesentence. 2. Subordinate clause (dependent clause), a clause that add the additional information to the main clause, but which cannot stand alone as a sentence. In a complex sentence, at least consists of one main clause and one subordinate clause, for example: “He believed that the earth was round”. main clause subordinate clause

Clauses are usually classified according to their function in the longer sentence: A- A noun clause: is a group of words which has a finite verb and functions like a noun, e. g. : -She said that she was sorry. (D. O. ) -What you are doing is unacceptable (Subj. ) B- An Adjective clause: (usually called relative clause) modifies a noun, e. g. : - The girl (whom) you have just seen is my sister. - The story (which) you are reading seems very interesting.

C- An Adverbial Clause: Functions like an adverb, i. e. - When the student arrived, the lecture had already begun. - John failed the test because he had not worked hard enough.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. An adverbial clause functions like an. 1 adverb in giving information about the reason, manner, time, place, concession, condition, or purpose of an action that occurred. The name "adverbial" suggests that adverbial clauses modify verbs; but they modify whole clauses.

SOME EXAMPLES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. I did this work, because this work is part of my educational project. (reason) 2. He ate as if he were starving for months. (manner) 3. Before you go, bring me some water. (time) 4. Put it where we can see it. (place) 5. Even though we treat her kindly, she is suspicious of us. (concession)

6. Unless you study hard, you will fail in this exam. (condition) 7. We need to eat so that we may live. (purpose)

We can roughly say that, in the light of our definitions of phrase and clause, the sentence is a clause that can stand on its own , i. e. , it is an independent clause : Examples: - John ran home. - Don’t wait for me. - Is Reema a good student? - What a glorious morning? As you can see from the examples given above, there are different types of sentences.

A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation, which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop when written.

Sentence can be classified based on the. 1 categories of Pragmatic Aspect, Form, and Grammatical Structure Based on the Pragmatic Aspect (realistic. 2 condition of the usage), sentence can be classified into: • Declarative Sentence • Imperative Sentence 3 • Interrogative Sentence • Exclamatory Sentence

What are the types of sentences? Sentences are usually divided into four types: 1 - Declarative sentences : which make statements , e. g. : - My brother came home late last night. - We shall go to the market tonight. - I don’t agree to what you are saying. 2 - Imperative sentences: which give order and make requests, e. g. : - Come here - Don’t go yet. - Pass the sugar, please.

3 - Interrogative Sentences: which ask questions. - Have you got enough money for the trip? 4 - Exclamatory Sentences: which express surprise, anger, admiration etc. - What a beautiful lady ! - What a fool you are !

Another classification focuses on the structure: A- A simple sentence: contains only one finite verb, e. g. : -Hatim has been absent for a weak. B- A compound sentence: consists of two or more simple sentences joined by means of one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, so etc. -The professor entered the lecture hall and (he)started the lecture. C- A complex sentence: consists of one main clause and one more subordinate clause ; e. g. : - He left the station after he had seen his friend off.

D- A compound complex sentence: a combination of two or more complex sentences. - I saw him when he entered the building but I didn’t see him when he left.

Which specify the constituency of syntactic categories in the language. - According to this approach, we label the elements that emerge every time a sentence is cut. Consider the following sentence: - The teachers praised the students; The first cut would produce : - The teacher: Noun Phrase (NP) - Praised the students : Verb Phrase (VP)

The second step produces: - Praised as the verb (v), and - The students as another Noun Phrase. Next, we divide the teachers and the students into their two components each, i. e. - The as a determiner (Det. ), And - teachers/ students : as a noun (N) Finally, to make this analysis clearer, we can turn the whole process into a diagram thus:

Phrase Structure Rules n n n If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge: Det N the instructor = NP Det N a friend = NP Det N some homework = NP Det N two classes = NP 36

The main phrase structure rules 1. S NP VP 2. NP {Det N, Pro, PN} 3. VP V (NP) (PP) (Adv) 4. PP P NP 5. AP A (PP) 37

Phrase Structure Rules n n n some more patterns: V Det N call the instructor= VP V Det N meet a friend = VP V Det N do some homework = VP V Det N skip two classes = VP 38

PSR n n n and yet more patterns: Prep Det N with the instructor= PP Prep Det N from a friend = PP Prep Det N with some homework = PP Prep Det N after two classes = PP 39

PSR n n Rules for determining the structure of phrases Generate a lot of sentences from a small number of rules. The structure of a phrase will consist of one or more constituents in a certain order. What does a NP consist of? n “noun phrases have a Det and a N” NP Det N 40

Lexical Rules n We need lexical rules to specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents such as N. n n n PN N Pro {Mary, George} {girl, boy, dog} 41

PSR n V Det N run a marathon eat the food read the book n V Prep Det N go to the store V Det N V Prep Det N talk with a teacher Prep Det N take your sister to the library n n “Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and (sometimes) a PP” VP -> V (NP) (PP) 42

(Sub-tree) NP Det. The N bus The Phrase Structure Rule which makes this explicit can be stated as: NP Det. + N This rule conveys two facts: - A Noun Phrase can be a Det. Followed by a Noun. - A Det. Followed by a Noun is a Noun Phrase.

VP VP V+NP+PP

Phrase Structure Rules & tree diagrams n n NP (Det) N PP P NP The boy (NP) Det N The boy the boy in the yard NP Det N PP P NP Det The boy in the N yard 46

Phrase Structure Rules n n VP V (NP) (PP) S NP VP took the money (VP) V NP Det took the money from the bank VP V N NP Det money PP N P NP Det took the money from the N bank 47

Example (1) The old tree swayed in the wind S NP Det Adj VP N V PP P NP Det The old tree swayed in the N wind 48

Example (2) The children put the toy in the box S NP Det VP N V NP Det PP N P NP Det The children put the toy in the N box 49

Example 3 50