Management Organisational Behaviour 2 e Chapter 5 Motivation

Management & Organisational Behaviour 2 e Chapter 5 Motivation Principles at Work ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Learning Outcomes On completion of this session students will be able to: • Identify two need-based theories of motivation at work. • Explain why eliminating dissatisfaction won’t motivate. • Distinguish motives of achievement, power, affiliation. 1 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Learning Outcomes (cont. ) • Relate three expectancy factors to conditions that motivate. • Distinguish between satisfaction and dissatisfaction. • Explain why equity can alleviate motivational problems. • Explain why theories of individual motivation are inadequate. 2 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Motivation Defined • Motivation involves a conscious decision to perform one or more activities with greater effort than one performs other activities competing for attention. 3 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Three elements Motivation contains three elements: 1. Some need, motive, or goal that triggers action. 2. A selection process that directs the choice of action. 3. A level of effort intensity applied to the chosen action. 4 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Needs Trigger Approach-Avoidance Behaviours • APPROACH • People seek out growth aspiration needs, goals and experiences (tasks, relationships, events) they find personally meaningful. • AVOIDANCE • People try to avoid or minimise deficiency reduction needs – events or conditions that are troubling, debilitating, or unpleasant. 5 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Maslow’s Original Hierarchy of Needs Once a lower-level need is satisfied, its impact diminishes and the individual can progress to the next higher level need. Need for self actualisation Esteem needs Belonging needs Safety needs Physical needs 6 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Alderfer’s ERG Theory • Clayton Alderfer offers a nonhierarchical theory based on three categories of motivating needs. 7 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

ERG Theory • EXISTENCE (E) – Needs for basic survival that everyone must satisfy to maintain life. • RELATEDNESS (R) – Needs to draw people into interpersonal contact for social-emotional caring. • GROWTH (G) – Needs for personal development and a sense of self-worth. 8 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Herzberg’s Dual-Factor Theory (Improving Hygiene Factors Will Not Motivate) • Hygiene Factors • Job context working conditions that can trigger dissatisfaction if inadequate. • Example: job security, quality of supervision, interpersonal relations, pay and benefits. 9 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Herzberg (cont. ) • Motivator Factors • Job content that offers the potential for satisfaction or intrinsic motivation. • Example: responsibility, job challenge, achievement opportunities, recognition. 10 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Herzberg’s Dual Factor Theory of Motivation 11 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

The Contrasting beliefs between Theory X and Theory Y Theory X managers: • Assume people act only to realise their basic needs and therefore do not voluntarily contribute to organisational aims: • People dislike responsibility and lack ambition. • The average person is passive, indolent, works as little as possible. • People are self-centred and indifferent to organised needs. 12 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Theory Y managers: • Assume people are motivated by higherorder growth needs and will act responsibly to accomplish organisational objectives: • People seek responsibility and have capacity to control tasks. • People are not passive or indifferent to firm needs. • Employees have the ability to be creative and use ingenuity to solve problems. 13 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Motives are Learned from Experience • ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE – The need to achieve is learned from involvement in tasks that will provide a sense of accomplishment. • POWER MOTIVE – The need for power finds satisfaction from being in change and controlling and influencing others. • AFFILIATION MOTIVE – The need for affiliation is learned from seeking satisfaction from the quality of social and interpersonal relationships. 14 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Attributions affect Motive Development (the process of rationalising causality as to outcomes) Internals See themselves as causing positive outcomes – they accept responsibility as they believe their efforts and/or abilities brought about favorable results – feel pride. 15 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Attributions Affect Motive Development (cont. ) Externals See other factors as causing outcomes (often negative) – because of bad luck, unforeseen events, powerful others, impossible tasks – accept shame. 16 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Parallels among popular theory of motivation 17 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Personal Ideology Promotes Motivational Consistency Personal ideology An individualised conception of one’s place in the world based on personal values in relation to meaningful activities that promote a sense of selfworth. 18 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Emotional Intelligence Feeds Passion for Work Daniel Goleman found that when predicting outstanding leaders, emotional intelligence was twice as important as technical skills or IQ. 19 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Five key components of emotional intelligence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. • Self-Awareness Self-Regulation Motivation Empathy Social skill Most common is motivation to achieve beyond expectations, a passion and pride for work. 20 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Expectancy Theory Raises Three Questions Expectancy theory – A theory of motivation based on a person’s beliefs about effort-performance-outcome relationships. 21 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Three questions people ask themselves 1. Does how hard I try really affect my performance? (a question of expectancy) 2. Are personal consequences linked to my performance? (a question of instrumentality) 3. Do I value the consequences available to me? (a question of valence) 22 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Motivation Implications of Intrinsic/Extrinsic Rewards Intrinsic rewards • One’s personal feelings about how well they performed the task, or simply the satisfaction derived from doing it. Extrinsic rewards • Externally bestowed, such as praise from a supervisor, a promotion or pay raise, assuming fairness in rewards. 23 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Managing Motivational Expectancies • To get the best from their people, managers should emphasise anticipated reward value, whether extrinsic or intrinsic. The manager’s job is to strengthen effort-performancereward expectancies. 24 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Questions • What does this mean? • How can it be done? 25 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Perceptions of Equity Moderate Motivation • Equity theory suggests motivation is moderated by perceived fairness or discrepancies between personal contributions and rewards. 26 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Equity Theory A. Compare ratio of payoff to task performance. B. Compare payoffs to external frames of reference: 1. Comparisons to specific other individuals. 2. Comparisons to another reference group. 3. Comparisons to one’s occupational norms. 27 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Fairness Involves: Distributive and Procedural Justice Distributive justice • The perceived fairness of the amount and allocations of rewards among individuals. Procedural Justice • The perceived fairness of the means used to determine the amount and distribution of rewards. 28 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Should Motivation Focus on Individuals or Groups? Many cultures disregard individual motivation. – For Scandinavians, social needs and quality of life take precedence over selfactualisation achievement needs. – In the People’s Republic of China, the family/social fabric dominates and government assigns people to jobs. – In France, the quality of life – vacations and free-time – is more highly valued than work-related accomplishments. 29 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Innovation goals shift motivation toward teams Producing continuous improvements is principally a team task. Innovation and performance result when teams are motivated to improve. 30 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

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Summary • One of life’s basic conflicts is whether to approach (actively engage) or to avoid a person, task or event. The direction and intensity of movement toward or away from a situation reflect one’s motivation at the time. • Motivation is our conscious decision to direct our effort more toward one or more activities than other possibilities, and/or to vary the level of effort exerted. • Several theories seek to identify individual needs or motives and suggest how each activates different behaviours. 32 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Summary continued 1 • Maslow originally identified five hierarchical levels of needs but later simplified his theory to define needs as either deficiency reduction or growth aspiration forces. • Alderfer distilled Maslow’s theory into three nonhierarchical needs: existence, relatedness and growth. This simplification has produced generally favourable research support. • Herzberg focused entirely on work motivation and claimed that simply providing for hygiene or maintenance needs does not motivate. Only motivators – the sources of satisfaction found in the nature of work itself – will motivate. 33 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Summary continued 2 • Some needs become such compelling sources of satisfaction to an individual that they become socially learned motives. • People will consistently engage in activities that satisfy their dominant motive, such as a need for power, achievement or affiliation. Managers do well to draw on socialised power needs, and entrepreneurs usually have high achievement needs. • Expectancy theory provides the central explanation of motivation as a process. It explains how individuals evaluate effort–performance–outcome relationships in making behaviour choices. 34 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005

Summary continued 3 • Moderating motivation (regardless of need, motive or expectancy) are people’s perceptions of equity, which are separated into the fairness arenas of distributive justice and procedural justice. • Theories of motivation popular in Britain focus on individual behaviour. Yet many organisations are shifting to group-based practices, and globally in many cultures the individual is already subordinate to the group. A new stream of motivation research is expected to focus on providing greater insights into group-based motivation. 35 ©The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2005