Macroeconomics Chap 1 Economy and Macroeconomics 1Desire and

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Macroeconomics マクロ経済学 Chap. 1 Economy and Macroeconomics 第1章 経済とマクロ経済学

Macroeconomics マクロ経済学 Chap. 1 Economy and Macroeconomics 第1章 経済とマクロ経済学

1.Desire and Scarcity 欲望と稀少性  Life = a process of fullfiling human desires Physiological desires…arise

1.Desire and Scarcity 欲望と稀少性  Life = a process of fullfiling human desires Physiological desires…arise as needs for housing, food and clothing Social desires…arise when people live their lives as a member of society →People get and use some resources as means of satisfying their desires=people’s lives When we see our desires from a viewpoint of getting and using some resources They are called economic desires material desires …desires for visible physical material immaterial desires …desires for invisible services Economic goods = resources that are obtained by paying sacrifices Free goods = resources (such as air) that are obtained without paying sacrifices Scarcity = insufficiency of satisfying resources compared with our desires Saturation = completely satisfied state 生活=人間の欲望充足過程 生理的欲望(physical desire)…衣食住などの生存に必要 社会的欲望(social desire)…人間が一人の社会人として生きていく過程で生じる  →何らかの資源を充足手段として獲得・利用 =人間の生活過程 欲望を充足手段の獲得・利用という側面から見る場合 経済的欲望(economic desire)  物質的欲望(material desire)…目に見える(visible)物質の場合  非物質的欲望(immaterial desire)…目に見えない(invisible)サービスの場合 経済財(economic goods)=犠牲を払って獲得される資源 自由財(free goods)=空気のように特に犠牲を払うまでもなく充足される資源 稀少性(scarcity)=人間の欲望と比べ充足手段が相対的に不足していること 欲望の飽和(saturation)=完全な満足状態

2.What is economy? 経済とは何か Economy is human activities which get and use such resources

2.What is economy? 経済とは何か Economy is human activities which get and use such resources with paying some sacrifices that are relatively scarce in comparison with human desires. Etymology in Chinese, 経世済民 = 経済 = “to rule the society and save the people" …in the sense of socio-economy Etymology in Greek, Oikos οικος (home, house) + Nomos νομος (law, norms) = Oikonomia, Οικονομία (household management)… in the sense of private economy → economia in Italy, economie in French and Dutch, Ökonomie in Germany, economy in English = house, doing household Around the late 18 th century, Adam Smith→ political economy In the 20 th century → refined scientific definition by Robbins 経済(economy)とは、「人間の欲望と比較してその存在量が相対的に稀少な財貨やサービス を、何らかの犠牲を払って獲得・利用する活動」 中国の語源では経世済民=経済=「世を治め民を救う」という社会経済的な意味 ギリシャ語ではオイコス(家)+ノモス(法、規範)=オイコノミア(家政、家計) →英語のeconomy=家の資源を節約し、家計をやり繰りするという私経済的な意味 18世紀の後半アダム・スミスの頃→政治経済 20世紀に入って→ロビンズによる科学的に純化された定義

3.Economic Goods and Free Goods 経済財と自由財 Resources , Goods = Means to satisfy human

3.Economic Goods and Free Goods 経済財と自由財 Resources , Goods = Means to satisfy human economic desires directly or indirectly Free goods = goods (like air) that exist affluently in comparison with human desires and therefore are obtained without paying any special sacrifices Economic goods = goods that exist a few in comparison with human desires and therefore that are means to satisfy human economic desires Goods in the narrow sense = visible material goods such as bread and cloths that satisfy human material desires Services = invisible goods such as knowledge, song, driving services, etc. that satisfy human immaterial desires 資源(resources)・財(goods)=人間の経済的欲望を直接ないし間接に満たす充足手段 自由財(free goods)=空気のように存在量が豊富で、人間が欲する必要量はとくに犠牲を 払わなくても獲得できる財 経済財(economic goods)=人間の欲望に比べてその存在量が稀少な財、つまり経済的欲 望の充足手段となる財  財貨(狭義のgoods)=パンや衣類のように物質的欲望を満たす財  用役とかサービス(services)=知識や歌手の唄、運転手の輸送サービスなどのように非物 質的欲望を満たす財

4.Economic subject, economic principle, economic value 経済主体、経済原則、経済的価値 Economic behavior, economic activity= human behavior or

4.Economic subject, economic principle, economic value 経済主体、経済原則、経済的価値 Economic behavior, economic activity= human behavior or activity to try to satisfy human economic desires Economic subject = human subject that operates economic activity (individual, group, organization) Economic problems = problems of what kind and quantity of resources and how we should get in order to satisfy various desires properly. Economic principle = To get the greatest satisfaction with the least sacrifice. To achieve the largest performance with the smallest cost. =To achieve the largest performance if cost is constant. To realize the lowest cost if performance is constant. Positive economic value = user value in classical school, utility in modern economics, Negative economic value = disutility in modern economics 経済行動(economic behavior)・経済活動(economic activity)=経済的欲望を充足しようとする人 間の行動・活動 経済主体(economic subject)=経済活動を営む主体(個人、団体、組織) 経済問題(economic problems)=各種の欲望をバランスよく満たすためには、  どの種類の充足手段をそれぞれどれだけの量、どういう方法で獲得するかという問題 経済原則(economic principle) =「最小の犠牲で最大の満足を得ること、あるいは最小の費用で最 大の成果をえること」=「費用が一定ならば成果を最大にすること、あるいは成果が一定ならば費 用を最小にすること」 価値(value)=一般に客体が主体の欲望を満足させる性質 経済的価値(economic value)=「充足手段が主体の経済的欲望を満足させる性質」 経済原則=プラスとマイナスを差し引きしたネットの経済的価値を最大にすること プラスの価値=古典派では使用価値(user value)、現代経済学では効用(utility) マイナスの経済的価値=不効用(disutility)

5. Economic Order and Economic Law 経済秩序と経済法則 Economic order=Certain rules that economic agents should

5. Economic Order and Economic Law 経済秩序と経済法則 Economic order=Certain rules that economic agents should follow in conducting economic activities = Individual constraints such as budget constraints, social order such as morality and business customs and law Economic law=Constant regularity that can be seen if all economic agents act on purpose, while they maintain their economic order. Historical law=Constant regularity when it appears regularly with repeatability only in a specific era or country Universal law= Regular repeatability at anytime, anywhere, regardless of ages or spaces, ancient or east-west 経済秩序(economic order) =経済主体が経済活動をするうえで従うべき一定のルール  =予算制約などの個別的制約、道徳や商慣習や法律などの社会的秩序 経済法則(economic law)=すべての経済主体がそれぞれ経済秩序を守りつつ、合目的的 に行動していれば見られる一定の規則性 歴史法則(historical law)=特定の時代や国においてのみ規則的反復性をもって現われる 場合 普遍法則(universal law)=古今東西を問わずにいつでもどこでも規則的反復性を示す場合

6.What is Economics? 経済学とは何か  Economics = "Science to study the economy" = " Science

6.What is Economics? 経済学とは何か  Economics = "Science to study the economy" = " Science to study human activities which acquire and use at some sacrifice relatively scarce goods whose amount of existence is relatively scarce compared with human desires“ Scarcity definition of economics. . . definition by Lionel Robbins in 1932. "Economics is a science to study human behaviors as a relationship between various purposes and scarce resources which have alternative uses. ” Definition by Samuelson = "Economics is a science to study how people and society use scarce resources and how we distribute these goods among various people and groups in a society for present and future consumptions in order to produce various kinds of goods continuously, whether we use money or not. ” 経済学(economics)=「経済を研究する科学」=「人間の欲望と比較してその存在量が   相対的に稀少な財を、何らかの犠牲を払って獲得・利用する活動を研究する科学」 …経済学の稀少性定義(scarcity definition)…… 1932年にライオネル・ロビンズ  「経済学は、諸目的と代替的用途をもつ稀少な諸手段との間の関係としての人間行動 を研究する科学である」   サミュエルソンの定義=「経済学は、人々や社会が、貨幣を用いるにせよ用いないに   せよ、各種の財を継続的に生産するために、稀少な資源をいかに利用するか、また そうした財を現在と将来の消費のために社会のさまざまな人間や集団の間にいかに 分配するかを研究する。」

6 B.What is Economics?  経済学とは何か Materialist definition   Definition by Marshall = "Economics is

6 B.What is Economics?  経済学とは何か Materialist definition   Definition by Marshall = "Economics is to study human beings in their daily life. Economics studies a part of individual and social behaviors which is the most closely related to acquisition and use of material requirements of welfare. “  Distinction by Adam Smith between productive and non-productive labours (whether to produce tangible goods or not)⇒Classical School “Kings, bureaucrats, pastors, lawyers, doctors, writers, actors, clownuts,  musicians, opera singers, opera dancers, etc. are unproductive labour that produces no value. “ Viewpoint of modern economics Both material goods and non-material goods are equally economic goods as long as they satisfy the economic desire of human beings and the labor that produces these goods are equally productive. 物質主義的定義(materialist definition)  マーシャルの定義=「経済学は、生活上の日常の業務における人間の研究である。それ は個 人的・社会的行為のうち、厚生の物質的要件の獲得と利用とに最も密接に関係する部分を研 究する」  アダム・スミス(古典派)による生産的労働と不生産的労働の区別(有形の物質を生産するか否か)  「君主や文武の百官、牧師、弁護士、医師、著述家、俳優、道化役者、音楽家、オペラ歌手、オ ペラ・ダンサー等は、何らの価値も産み出さない不生産的労働である」 現代の経済学の見解→物質的財貨であれ非物質的用役であれ、それが経済的欲望を満たす限り は等しく経済財であり、それを産み出す労働は等しく生産的である。

7. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Four categories of economics = economic theory, economic

7. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Four categories of economics = economic theory, economic history, econometrics, economic policy Economic theory, theoretical economics = to observe regularity of economic phenomena and to analyze logically consistent economic laws Elementary basic theory = Economic principles , Principles of economics Microeconomics= price analysis =to analyze individual behaviors of economic agents such as consumers, firms and governments, mainly focusing on prices Macroeconomics=income analysis =to analyze the economy of a country as a whole, mainly focusing on incomes 経済学の4部門=経済理論、経済史、計量経済学、経済政策 経済理論(economic theory)・理論経済学(theoretical economics)  =経済現象がもつ規則性を観察して、論理的に整合性のある経済法則を析出   初 歩 的 な 基 礎 理 論 = 経 済 原 論 ( economic principles) ・ 経 済 学 原 理 ( principles of economics) ミクロ経済学(微視的経済学;microeconomics)=価格分析(price analysis)  消費者や企業あるいは政府といった個別の経済主体の行動に焦点を当てて分析 マクロ経済学(巨視的経済学;macroeconomics)=所得分析(income analysis)  一国経済全体の観点から分析

7 B. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Fallacy of composition = Incorrect case where

7 B. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Fallacy of composition = Incorrect case where a whole logic that is derived from an individual logic is wrong Mathematical economics = economic theory that utilizes advanced mathematics as analytical methods. After the Marginal Revolution in 1870’s Inductive method = logical method to introduce general and abstract laws from observing individual and concrete economic phenomena Deductive method = logical method to hypothesize general and abstract models or laws and to infer what kind of results will occur under individual special conditions 合成の誤謬(fallacy of composition)  =個体の論理から全体の論理を導いてもそれが間違っているケース 数理経済学(mathematical economics)  =分析手法としてとくに高度な数学を用いた経済理論、   1870年代の限界革命(the Marginal Revolution)以降 帰納法(inductive method)  =個別の具体的な経済現象の観察から一般的・抽象的な   法則を析出する方法 演繹法(deductive method)  =まず一般的・抽象的なモデルや法則を仮設し、個別の特殊的条件のもとではどのような結 果が生じるかを推論する方法

7 C. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Ideal typus (German, by Max Weber)= abstracted

7 C. Economic Theory and Macroeconomics 経済理論とマクロ経済学 Ideal typus (German, by Max Weber)= abstracted and purified models and laws Homo economicus (homo oeconomicus)= economic person who has perfect information and performs fully reasonable maximizing behaviors Statics = academic method to analyze economic phenomena at the same time by stopping logical time Dynamics = academic method to analyze economic phenomena between different times along logical time 理念型(ideal typus)  =抽象的な純化されたモデルや法則 ホモ・エコノミクス(homo oeconomicus)  =完全情報をもち、完全に合理的に最大化行動を行なう経済人 静学(statics)  =論理時間を静止させて、同時的に経済現象を分析する方法 動学(dynamics)  =論理時間に沿って、異時点間の経済現象を分析する方法

8.Economic History, Econometrics, Economic Policy 経済史、計量経済学、経済政策 Economic history= a part of economics to observe

8.Economic History, Econometrics, Economic Policy 経済史、計量経済学、経済政策 Economic history= a part of economics to observe and describe individually and specifically changes and developments of economic phenomena according to the order of historical time (ex. ). . . Ancient economic history, medieval economic history, modern economic history, contemporary economic history. Japanese economic history, Chinese economic history, American economic history Econometrics = a part of economics to hypothesize economic laws that were established by economic theory and to test, verify and/or fallsify them using statistical and econometrical methods Controlled experiment. . . natural science such as physics etc Uncontrolled experiment. . . economics and other social sciences Conditional prediction. . . to predict the future state of phenomena on the assumption that there is no structural change Quantitative economic history. . . to verify individual events and general historical laws on the basis of quantitative data 経済史(economic history)  =経済現象の変化や発展を歴史時間(historical time)の順序にしたがって個別的・具体的に観察・記述 する経済学の部門…… 古代経済史、中世経済史、近世経済史、現代経済史。日本経済史、中国経 済史、アメリカ経済史 計量経済学(econometrics)=経済理論により定立された法則を仮説として設定し、統計的手法を用いて 検証→立証(verify)反証(fallsify) 制御された実験(controlled experiment)……物理学など自然科学 制御されない実験(uncontrolled experiment)……経済学など社会科学 条件付き予測(conditional prediction)…構造変化がないという前提で将来を予測 数量経済史(quantitative economic history)  =数量的史実をデータとして、個別的な事象や一般的な歴史法則を裏付けようとする研究

8 B.Economic History, Econometrics, Economic Policy 経済史、計量経済学、経済政策 Economic policy = a part of economics

8 B.Economic History, Econometrics, Economic Policy 経済史、計量経済学、経済政策 Economic policy = a part of economics to improve the economy by applying economic knowledge that was clarified by economic history, theory and econometrics Policy subjects= economic subjects which conduct economic policy Policy objectives or targets =economic objectives which economic policy aims at Pigou’s 3 major objectives from the perspective of welfare economics 1. Economic growth, 2. economic stabilization, 3. economic equality Kumagai’s 2 major objectives= efficiency and equity Boulding’s 2 objectives = economic freedom and economic progress 経済政策(economic policy)=経済史や経済理論、計量経済学などによって明らかにされた 経済的知識を、実際の政策に応用することを任務 政策主体(policy subjects) 政策目標(policy objectives) ピグーは厚生経済学(welfare economics)の見地から 成長(growth)、平等(equality)、安定(stabilization)の3大目標  熊谷の 2大目標=効率(efficiency)と公正(equity) ボールディングの 2大目標=経済的自由(economic freedom)と経済的進歩(economic progress)

9.Inter-relationship among some category 諸部門の相互関係 Economic history, economic theory, econometrics, and economic policy complement

9.Inter-relationship among some category 諸部門の相互関係 Economic history, economic theory, econometrics, and economic policy complement each other closely to clarify economic phenomena and to improve the economy Pure science = pure logical science such as mathematics, logics, and statistics Empirical science = science whose objects are natural or social phenomena and applies pure science to these phenomena in order to clarify them Fact judgment = judgments regarding existent things (Sein) such that something is~. Value judgment = judgments regarding desirable things (Sollen) such that something should be~. Max Weber's “freedom from value” (wertfreiheit) Gunnar Myrdal's “value premise” 経済史、経済理論、計量経済学の三者は、相互に密接に関連しながら補完し合っ て経済現象を解明 純粋科学(pure science)と経験科学(empirical science) 事実判断(fact judgement)  =存在(Sein)に関する「~である」という判断 価値判断(value judgement)  =当為(Sollen)に関する「~べきである」という判断  マックス・ウェーバーの没価値性・価値自由(wertfreiheit)  グンナー・ミュルダールの価値前提(value premise)