Logical Fallacies and Arguments Learning Definitions of Fallacies

Logical Fallacies and Arguments Learning Definitions of Fallacies Continuums of Logic Easily Confused Fallacies Overlapping Fallacies & the Red Herring Class Exercises Identifying Logical Fallacies Creating Logical Fallacies

Fallacies of Simplicity Fallacy Definition Concise Version Example Hasty Generalization Drawing a conclusion about a large group based on a few or on little evidence Overstatement; stereotype I saw a fight at a fraternity party last weekend. Those frat boys are out of control. Forced Hypothesis The explanation (hypothesis) offered for a situation is forced because it draws its conclusions from insufficient evidence or misinterprets the evidence Poorly supported hypothesis Jerry and Kim live next door to each other, so they must be really good friends. Non Sequiter Coming to a conclusion that doesn’t logically follow the explanation. Idea doesn’t follow We don’t see as many women in calculus classes as we do men, so clearly their brains are not capable of handling difficult math concepts. Slippery Slope Suggesting that one step will inevitably lead to more and more negative steps; often appears as A will lead to B, B will lead to C, C will lead to D. . . Progression of negative consequences You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you. False Dilemma Reducing complex issues to black and white polarized positions Only 2 alternatives; Either / or "Wouldn't you rather have a park than a storage facility for nuclear waste? " False Analogy Using a comparison to relate two ideas that are not so similar Comparing 2 incomparable things Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees. Post Hoc Fallacy Assuming that because one thing came before another, it caused the other to occur, without logically linking the two. Faulty causal relationship I ate a cheeseburger before the test and made an “A. ” Cheeseburger’s must help me think better.

Fallacies of Relevance Fallacy Definition Concise Version Example Begging the Question Presenting an arguable point as fact to support your argument. Stating that the assertion is true because it is true. The argument just goes round and round rather than proving your argument. Circular logic Paranormal phenomena exist because I have had experiences that can only be described as paranormal. Red Herring Trying to change the argument by introducing a new, side issue that does not resolve the issue at hand Off topic, unrelated issue I can never find a parking spot on campus so transportation services has no right to give me a parking ticket. Straw Man Presenting the counterargument as oversimplified and ridiculous while ignoring their valid points. Distorting the opponent’s view Those who want female yell leaders just want to destroy the traditions of Texas A&M. Bandwagon Trying to get everyone on board by convincing the audience that because a large group does something, they should too. Get on board Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish. " Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too? Ad Populum Attempting to win over the audience by arousing feelings or values of the majority instead of rationally supporting the argument Misusing common values I read the other day that most people really like the new gun control laws. I was sort of suspicious of them, but I guess if most people like them, then they must be okay. Ad Hominem Refuting the counterargument by showing them to have faulty character instead of arguing the issue Attacking opponent’s character Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong. " Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest. "

Analogy – False Analogy � Comparisons help elucidate new ideas and solutions for issues, but they can also take us so far away from the issue at hand that they become irrelevant. � How similar are the two things compared? How different are they? Is the comparison effective or ineffective? 1) Drinking and marijuana 2) Child obesity and child abuse

Causal Relationship – Post Hoc � Scientists and lay people alike try to discern which factors cause certain effects, and there is often debate over how logical these assertions are. � How closely related do the items seem? What evidence suggests that there is a causal relationship between them. 1) It rains on campus. Student attendance decreases. 2) “If you’d been a better teacher, I would have learned the material better. ”

Generalization – Hasty Generalization � We often employ generalizations to form patterns and make sense of the world. But this strategy can have detrimental effects when we don’t acknowledge that people often fall outside the “majority” and that many stereotypes have no legitimate basis in reality. � Is the generalization backed by evidence? For what purposes is the group generalized? 1) Most English majors are Democrats. 2) Only women are good at English.

Stating the Counterargument – Straw Man � In debates, stating the position of the counterargument reveals that you understand their points and gives you a common place from which to begin the debate. However, using this strategy to misrepresent and “dumb down” the opposition is a deliberate approach to argument that will take you away from the real issues. � What are the key points in the counterargument? How does this misrepresent or dumb down their argument? 1) The people who say obesity is a social problem, and not an individual one, think that we can never overcome the brainwashing of advertisements. 2) Gun control advocates want to take away every gun in America.

Character Evidence – Ad Hominem � Even in court rooms, we often find it useful to establish the character or credibility of a witness or defendant. However, when this character analysis has little to do with the issue and simply attacks the person in an attempt to discredit him or her, we have done little to logically advance our argument. � Are the points about his/ her character relevant to the debate? Does it make them legitimately less able to comment or perform in the debate? 1) Don’t appoint him designated driver. He’s had a DUI before. 2)Don’t believe what he says. He’s had a DUI before.

Agreed Upon Conventions – Bandwagon � In some realms, such as scientific research, reproducing the same results provides validity for an argument. When the preponderance of evidence and experts suggest that something is valid, then we often accept this majority opinion. However, many issues cannot be measured this way and the assent of the majority provides no basis for why an opinion is valid. � Is the majority a group of experts who have the knowledge to comment on the topic? 1) 7 out of 10 psychologists recommend drug intervention for severe cases of depression. 2) 7 out of 10 college students think it’s acceptable to cheat on quizzes and tests.

Easily Confused Fallacies Many logical fallacies are closely related, but have fine-tuned difference between them. Here are some ways to distinguish between the more popularly confused fallacies. Bandwagon Ad Populum Appealing to common actions; everyone’s doing it Appealing to common values; everyone believes it Ex) Most educated people vote; 10, 000 people pray daily Ex) Everyone loves dogs; Americans want their freedoms. Straw Man Ad Hominem Making their argument look stupid Making the person look stupid Ex) Proponents of legalizing marijuana argue weed is no different than oregano. Ex) Proponents of legalizing marijuana are lazy potheads. Forced Hypothesis Post Hoc Poor understanding of the evidence -claim relationship Poor understanding of the temporal (in time) cause-effect relationship Ex) Dr. Jay is a good teacher because he gives A’s. Ex) Dr. Jay is a good teacher because he ate a sound breakfast.

Overlapping Fallacies These fallacies often occur together because they are so closely related or because they can describe the same kind of faulty logic. Hasty Generalization Ad Hominem Attacking a person often means stereotyping them. Ex) He’s clearly lying. Criminals have no idea what honesty is. Red Herring Forced Hypothesis Both often provide a claim based on evidence that cannot justify it. Ex) Dr. Jay is a good teacher because he loves the university. His love of the university is both a faulty piece of evidence for the claim and is a side-issue. Non Sequiter Red Herring Both often provide evidence that is off-topic. Ex) Donna will make an A in physics because she made an A in biology. (Note: This is also a false analogy. ) Non Sequiter Post Hoc Both often establish a faulty cause-effect relationship. Ex) College students watch less TV because the screens have gotten too big.

Red Herring Class � All of the following fallacies are attempts to take the debate offtopic and to avoid supporting one’s argument with logical evidence, making them categorizable as red herrings. But when identifying these fallacies, the more specific classes below will tell you more about the fallacy than simply calling it an off-topic red herring. � Straw man: distract opponents by misrepresenting their position Bandwagon: distract opponents by calling them to join the group Ad Populum: distract opponents by appealing to common values Ad Hominem: distract opponents by demeaning their character � � �

Identifying Logical Fallacies Directions: Identify the logical fallacies in the following statements. As you have learned, statements can often be classified in more than one way. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. All of my friends drink energy drinks. They are totally safe. If we allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. Sylvestor Stallone is endorsing Mc. Cain. We need a tough president. Oprah Winfrey is voting for Obama. She knows so much about America and what is good for us. She really cares about the poor. Rush Limbaugh is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. Michael Moore is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. No one should die because they cannot afford health care, and no one should go broke because they get sick. If you agree, join us in posting this as your status for the rest of the day. I’d rather go naked than wear fur. The Social Security system works just fine. I get my check every month.

Identifying Logical Fallacies All my friends drink energy drinks. They are totally safe. �“Friends” are a small sample. Not enough evidence to draw a logical conclusion. �Hasty Generalization. Bandwagon.

Identifying Logical Fallacies Vote or Die. �If we don’t vote, we won’t actually die. �False Dilemma.

Identifying Logical Fallacies If we allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. �If we don’t allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. Both sides must prove link between guns on campus and increased shootings. �Slippery Slope. Ad Populum.

Identifying Logical Fallacies Sylvestor Stallone is endorsing Mc. Cain. Stallone is tough and we need a tough president. Oprah Winfrey is voting for Obama. She knows so much about America and what is good for us. She really cares about the poor. � Celebrity endorsement is effective advertisement, but not logical! A person’s fame has no relevance to the quality of the product being endorsed. � Ad Populum.

Identifying Logical Fallacies Rush Limbaugh is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. Michael Moore is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. �Attack through name calling �Ad Hominem

Identifying Logical Fallacies No one should die because they cannot afford health care, and no one should go broke because they get sick. If you agree, join us in posting this as your status for the rest of the day. Hospitals do treat emergency cases and county hospitals deliver babies, even without patient’s proof of insurance. Most areas have a free/low-cost clinic. There are options for low-cost insurance, or people can pay out of pocket. � False Dilemma. Hasty Generalization. Begging the Question. �

Identifying Logical Fallacies I’d rather go naked than wear fur. �Nudity does nothing to protect harmed animals. Effectiveness of slogan based entirely on shock value (and attractive models!). �Non Sequitur. Ad Populum.

Identifying Logical Fallacies The Social Security system works just fine. I get my check every month. �Effectiveness of a system is not determined by one example. History of payments does not guarantee future payments, if there is no money to replace what is spent. �Hasty Generalization. Forced Hypothesis.

Identifying Logical Fallacies Those protestors at Planned Parenthood are extremists who want to take away women's rights. Misrepresents opponent’s position. Ignores difference in defining terms (right vs. privilege). Use of “extremist” marginalizes the group to make them seem less significant. � Straw Man �

Identifying Logical Fallacies Every child a wanted child. It is possible to have mixed emotions (wanting and notwanting at the same time). It is possible to move from not wanting to wanting. Most Americans oppose countries who eliminate populations of “unwanted” people (Nazi Germany, Rwanda). � Overstatement. False Dilemma. �

Creating Logical Fallacies Directions: Devise a logical fallacy to get yourself out of trouble in the following situations. Do not use the same logical fallacy more than once. 1. You slept through for your Chemistry final and want to make up the test. 2. You borrowed $100 from your roommate’s wallet and forgot to tell her. 3. You won’t be attending your family’s thanksgiving dinner because you’re going to the A&M vs. t. u. football game. 4. You ran a red light on the way to class. 5. You told your best friend’s girlfriend that he was cheating on her and he found out it was you. 6. You didn’t wash the dishes before a party and your spouse is livid. 7. You want to quit your intramural soccer team, but they will be short a player. 8. You forgot to pick up your girlfriend or boyfriend from the library. 9. You want to be forced into a class that is completely full. 10. You are trying to get out of a parking ticket for staying in the MSC 15 minute parking for 20 minutes. Creating Logical Fallacies Activity devised by Glenn Allen Phillips