Local strategies annotation Annotating local strategies In this
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Local strategies & annotation
Annotating local strategies • In this chapter, • - we will learn how to annotate our translations and comment on other’s. • - Further, we will be familiar with a number of classifications of local strategies and shifts proposed by different scholars, namely: • J. P. Vinay & J. Darbelnet (1958/1995 ) • J. C. Catford (1965) • J. L. Malone (1988) • M. Baker (1992/2011) • •
• How to annotate? • In fact, annotation is a subjective exercise, depending on the person and his/her competences. However, translation students who have no experience can follow this, but they do not have to: • • • State their local strategy, as in: I (have) opted for … I (have) resorted to … I (have) translated … into … I (have) used … I (have) added … I (have) deleted … State the reason, as in: This is because … The main reason behind this is …
• State the type of the local strategy or shift, as in: • This is an example of ‘translation by addition’, ‘translation by omission’, ‘translation by paraphrase’, etc. • This is an example of ‘class shift’, ‘unit shift’, ‘intra-system shift’, ‘level shift’, etc. • • Elaborate if they can …. • • Referring to another researcher’s opinion in order to make their own annotation externally coherent, as in: • In this regard, Dickins et al (2002: 59) state that …. • In this respect, Baker (1992/2011) holds that …
• Annotation: • Local strategy I have opted for the addition of the phrase ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ 'usually’. Why This is to make the text read smoothly on the one hand, and lay emphasis on the regularity and frequency of the action as a matter of routine on the other. Elaboration It is worth noting that unlike English that has to express the regularity and frequency of an action grammatically, Arabic can express them lexically when they are relevant (cf. Baker 1992/2011). Languages differ widely in the way they map various aspects of world experiences. In this regard, Baker (1992: 84) rightly comments: External coherence Languages which have morphological resources for expressing a certain category such as number, tense, or gender, have to express these categories regularly; those which do not have morphological resources for expressing the same categories do not have to express them except when they are felt to be relevant.
Local strategies • Local strategies are problem-motivated strategies adopted by translators to solve the problem they face in dealing with segments of the text.
Different classifications • - J. P. Vinay & J. Darbelnet (1958/1995 ) • - J. C. Catford (1965) • - J. L. Malone (1988) • - M. Baker (1992/2011) • In this course, we will focus on only two classifications, namely J. P. Vinay & J. Darbelnet (1958/1995 ) and J. C. Catford (1965).
J. P. Vinay & J. Darbelnet (1958/1995 Strategies, or procedures as Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995: pp. 84 -91) label them, are divided into seven types, namely: ‘borrowing’, ‘calque’, ‘literal translation’, ‘transposition’, ‘modulation’, ‘equivalence’ and ‘adaptation’. • The first three types of strategies are labelled as ‘direct translation’, whilst the other four strategies named ‘oblique translation’
1 - Borrowing means transferring the SL lexical item into the TL directly due to, for instance, a gap in the TL lexicon or to introduce “an element of local colour” (p. 85). 2 - Calque refers to that type of borrowing in which the SL expression is first transferred into the TL, then its components are translated literally, resulting in either “lexical claque” or “structural claque” (p. 85). They hold that like borrowing, many claques with time become “an integral part of the language” and with some “semantic change” could turn into false friends (p. 85). Claque is classified by them into two types: a. ‘lexical calque’, which “respects the syntactic structure of the TL while introducing a new mode of expression”, such as pluralizing, for instance the borrowed word ﻣﻮﺑﺎﻳﻞ in Arabic after being transliterated first from English. b. ‘structural calque’, which “introduces a new construction”, such as using the forced passive voice ‘by-structure’, i. e. ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ in Arabic.
3) Literal translation refers to the capability of transferring the ST expression, phrase, sentence and so on into the TT literally without any change apart from those required by the TL grammar. They add that when the translators, after having tried all three procedures of direct translation, feel the outcome is unacceptable, they could recourse to one of the four procedures of oblique translation. They further comment that direct translation should be avoided if • - it changes the meaning; • - it is meaningless; • - it is structurally impossible; • - it does not correspond to anything in the target-language metalinguistic experience; • - it does have a correspondence in the TL, but within a different register (p. 87).
• 4) Transposition refers to a change of one part of speech for another without changing the meaning. Vinay and Darbelnet comment that from a stylistic perspective the transposed materials might have different impact; thus they advise translators to opt for a transposition only if “the translation […] obtained fits better into the utterance, or allows a particular nuance of style to be retained” (p. 89). It is similar to Catford’s (1965) ‘class shift’.
5. Modulation refers to “a variation of the form of the message, obtained by changing point of view” (p. 89). For stylistic reasons, to avoid repetition, or for other reasons, translators, at times, opt to use an antonym plus a negation element, change the passive form into active form or vice versa, change a concrete noun to an abstract one, or reorder the cause-effect sequence, etc. Like transposition, modulation, according to Vinay and Darbelnet, could be ‘optional’ or ‘obligatory’. By way of illustration, let us consider the following example quoted from them that can be translated into Arabic in two different ways: It is not difficult to show … (p. 89) . . . ﻟﻴﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺐ ﺃﻦ ﺗﺒﻥ . . . ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻞ ﺃﻦ ﺗﺒﻥ
6. Equivalence, in the sense Vinay and Darbelnet use the term, refers to the possibility of rendering an idiom, proverb, cliché, nominal or adjectival phrase, etc. by “using completely different stylistic and structural methods” as long as it is used in the same situation in the interfacing languages, as in the Arabic idiomatic expression ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺤ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺮ which may well be translated into English as ‘to be on pins and needles’. Provide me with more examples.
• 7. Adaptation is special kind of equivalence, i. e. “a situational equivalence”; it is used when the TL culture does not have a similar situation in its experience that could accommodate the situation of the original culture. They suggest “the translators have to create a new situation that can be considered as being equivalent” (p. 91). A good example of adaptation in the sense that Vinay and Darbelnet use the term is when the translator, for instance, change the proper name used as a vehicle in a simile like ‘he is as rich as Croesus’ into another proper name such as ‘Qaroun’ in Arabic, as in ‘ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﺎﻝ ﻗﺎﺭﻭﻥ lit. he has Qaroun’s wealth’ (for more details, see Almanna 2010: 118 -120).
• By way of explanation, let us consider the following example (quoted along with its published translation from AEX: DEOORANT BODYSPRAY): • ST: • Shake well before use. Hold can upright and spray away from face and body. Note that the spray is released upwards from the top of the cap. • • TT: ﺍﻣﺴﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﻮﺓ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ ﻭﻗﻢ ﺑﺮﺵ. • ﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﻮﺓ ﺟﻴﺪ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻳﺠﺐ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺃﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺥ ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻧﺤﻮ. ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺥ ﺑﻌﻴﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺴﻢ . ﺍﻷﻌﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎﺀ
Comment: As can be seen, while translating the above extract, the translator has opted for a number of local strategies, including ‘obligatory transposition’ and ‘optional transposition’ in the sense that Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995: 89) use the terms. The translator, in addition to obligatorily changing the adverb ‘upright’ to a prepositional phrase, i. e. ‘ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ lit. in a vertical form’, has optionally resorted to changing the verb ‘spray’ to a weak verb ﻗﻢ ‘lit. stand’ plus a prepositional phrase ‘ ﺑﺮﺵ lit. by spraying’ although s/he could use the verb ‘ ﺭﺵ lit. spray’.
Another example TT: • A girl gestured with her hand at the window overlooking the garden, like a dumb person, unable to speak. She was followed by another girl, then by the others …. (Starkey 2008: 1 ST: ﺑﻴﺪﻫﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﺎﻓﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻻ ، ﻛﺎﻟﺨﺮﺳﺎﺀ ، • ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﻓﺘﺎﺓ . . ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ، ﺗﺒﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺨﺮﻯ. ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﻖ • (Samīra al-Māni‘ 1997: 7)
• Comment: Here, a structure shift, which involves a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT, occurs. The translator has replaced the active voice expressed by ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ، ﺗﺒﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﺨﺮﻯ with a passive voice in the TT expressed by ‘she was followed by another, then the others’. In this regard, Catford (1965: 73) argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely: 1) ‘level shifts’ where the SL item at one linguistic level (e. g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e. g. lexis) and 2) ‘category shifts’ which are divided into four types: ‘structure-shifts’, ‘class shifts’, ‘unit shifts’ and ‘intra-system shifts’ (for more details, see Catford 1965: 73 -80; Munday 2008: 60 -61; Almanna 2014: 34 -35).
• By way of illustration, let us consider the following example (quoted from Alqunayir 2014: 21 -22): • • ST: • Contrary to what many think, this does not prove that the West has become a godless civilization. Rather, it confirms, as Cox argues, the changing nature of being religious in a post traditional world. • • TT: ﻻ ﺗﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻗﺪ ، • ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻜﺲ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻈﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﺘﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ، ﺑﻞ ﺅﻜﺪ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﻮﻝ ﻛﻮﻛﺲ. ﺃﺼﺒﺤﺖ ﻣﻠﺤﺪﺓ . ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ • • Comment: • As can be observed, the translator has opted for changing the point of view when she has translated ‘the West has become a godless civilization’ in which ‘the West’ is the doer of the action into ﺃﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻗﺪ ﺃﺼﺒﺤﺖ ﻣﻠﺤﺪﺓ where the doer of the action becomes ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ and ‘the West’ becomes part of the adverb of place ‘ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ in the West’. This is an example of modulation to use Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958/1995: 89) terminology.
• J. C. Catford (1965) • Following Firthian and Hallidayan linguistic model, Catford (1965) in his oft-cited book ‘A Linguistic Theory of Translation’ introduces two types of translation, namely: ‘formal correspondent’ and ‘textual equivalent’. • Formal correspondent is “any TL category (unit, class, element of structure, etc. ) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL” (Catford 1965: 27). • Textual equivalent, however, is defined by Catford as “any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion [. . . ] to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text” (p. 27).
• In a direct link to local strategies resorted to by translators while dealing with the text at hand, one can touch on shifts that may well occur as a result of adopting a particular local strategy, or a combination of many. Catford defines shifts as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (p. 73). He argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely: • a) Level shifts • b) Category shifts • According to Catford (Ibid), category shifts are divided into four types: 1) Structure-shifts 2) Class-shifts 3) Unit-shifts or rank-shifts 4) Intra-system shifts
• Level shifts • They occur when the SL item at one linguistic level (e. g. lexis) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e. g. grammar). • For instance, in English to emphasize the frequency of the action as a matter of routine, one can express it grammatically by opting for a simple present tense, such as: 'She goes to school with her dad'. However, to emphasize the frequency of the action in Arabic, the only solution is to resort to lexical items/expressions, such as ‘ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ usually’, ‘ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ often’ and so. • Structure shifts • They involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT. • Class shifts • They occur when a SL item is translated into a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class. For examples, there a great number of adverbs in English that are best substituted with a prepositional phrase plus an adjective in Arabic as in:
• Unit shifts involve changes in rank, such as translating a sentence in one language into a phrase, expression, etc. in another. • Intra-system shifts occur when SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translators opt for selecting a noncorresponding term in the TL system.
• By way of explanation, let us consider the following example (quoted along with its published translation from Air Wick: Oud ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺩ product label): • ST: • Do not spray or place on painted or polished surfaces. Keep out of reach of children. Pressurised containers: Protect from sunlight; do not expose to temperatures exceeding 50 C. • • TT: . ﻳﺤﻔﻆ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﺍ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﻄﻔﺎﻝ. • ﻻ ﻳﺮﺵ ﺃﻮ ﻳﻮﺿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺴﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻤﻌﺔ ﺗﺤﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻐﻮﻃﺔ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﺍ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺸﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﻭﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻦ ﺗﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺓ . ( ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻣﺌﻮﻳﺔ 50) ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ • Comment: • Here, the translator has changed the grammatical structures of the ST from active, expressed by ‘do not spray’, ‘place’, ‘keep out’ and ‘protect’ into passive, expressed by ﻻ ﻳﺮﺵ , ﻳﻮﺿﻊ , ﻳﺤﻔﻆ and ﺗﺤﻔﻆ. These are examples of structure shifts. Structure shifts, according to Catford (1965: 77), occur when translators resort to arranging lower-rank units (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. ) that form a larger unit (clause or sentence) differently. Structure shifts are the most frequent among the category shifts between Arabic and English. In discussing the translation of an English clause into a Gaelic clause, Catford (p. 77) shows how those lower-rank units (subject, predicate, and complement) are arranged differently in the TT, thus resulting in a structure shift.
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