LLC Behavior Analyst Certification Exam Prep Module VI

LLC Behavior Analyst Certification Exam Prep Module VI: Setting Events, Setting Factors, and Motivating Operations ; Ecological and Contextual approaches; Generalization and Maintenance of behavior This Module is based on the BACB Task List 4: Section I E. Specific Behavior-Change Procedures, I F. Behavior-Change Systems; Section II J. Intervention; Section III: Foundational Knowledge By: Michael Weinberg, Ph. D. , BCBA-D c. 2014 All Rights Reserved. May not be reproduced without express permission of OBHS

Module VI: Generalization and Maintenance of behavior; Setting Events, Setting Factors, and Motivating Operations (Ecological and Contextual approaches) Module V Objectives 1. Define and describe “Motivating Operations” and provide examples in everyday situations for Children (CMO & UMO) 2. Explain how MOs can be used in language training with young children 3. Define and describe Setting Events (SEs) and Ecological Variables, in behavior analysis 4. Identify key “setting factors” in human development as described in the Bijou & Ribes text 5. Define and describe methods for generalization and maintenance of behaviors acquired via behavior change procedures 6. Discuss why generalization and maintenance are critical aspects of behavior support/change programs.

Module VI Motivating Operations �Motivation is perhaps one of the most widely discussed topics in the field of psychology. The relevance of motivation to human behavior is ubiquitous, and most introductory psychology textbooks contain at least one chapter on the topic. �However, motivation has not been considered a major topic in the field of behavior analysis, despite the fact that Skinner wrote extensively about motivation as an important antecedent variable

Module VI Motivating Operations �Jack Michael has written a number of articles and has modified concepts of the MO and SE (e. g. , 1983, 1993, 2003) on the EO. �The successful applications of the EO to “mand” training and the reduction of problem behaviors for persons with developmental disabilities have brought the topic of motivation into a larger focus in behavior analysis. �There has been an increased interest in this area and in research, with a number of relevant publications in the behavior analytic literature and on motivation (E. g. Michael, 2003).

Module VI Motivating Operations (MOs) �Motivating Operations are Environmental procedures, conditions, or stimuli that: �Temporarily alter the value (effectiveness) of consequences (establishing and abolishing) �Evoke or abate behaviors associated with those consequences �EO’s and AO’s: These terms have been replaced with MO and are described in terms of the evocative and abative effects of a stimulus, and behavior altering effects, based upon satiation and deprivation. From: Cooper, Heron & Heward; Applied Behavior Analysis, 2 nd Edition, 2007

Module VI Motivating Operations � Primary, or Unconditioned Motivating Operations (UMO’s) are similar to primary reinforcers and their effects. - UMOs require no prior learning, and are part of our genetics (such as food, water, warmth, comfort, sexual contact). - Their function is based upon deprivation and satiation for a particular primary reinforcer � Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMO’s) are similar to conditioned reinforcers and their effects -CMOs require conditioning for their function to occur and affect behavior

Module VI Motivating Operations Matrix Type of Learning Temporarily Increases Value of the Reinforcer Temporarily Decreases the Value of the Reinforcer Primary or Unlearned UMO = Unconditioned Motivating Operation: - Increased value of a primary reinforcer - Behavior altering effect: increase in behavior maintained by the stimulus UMO = Unconditioned Motivating Operation: - Decreased value of a primary reinforcer - Behavior altering effect: Reduces or ceases behavior maintained by the stimulus CMO = Conditioned Motivating Operation: Motivating Operation - Increased value of a learned reinforcer - Behavior altering effect: increase in behavior maintained by the stimulus CMO = Conditioned Motivating Operation: - Decreased value of a learned reinforcer - Behavior altering effect: Reduction or cessation of behavior maintained by the stimulus

Module VI Motivating Operations, continued �The Operant Diagram is as follows – also referred to as the four term contingency: MO Sd Behavior Reinforcer �Motivating Operations alter the value of the reinforcer depending on conditions of deprivation and satiation, which results in the behavior that seeks or produces the reinforcer to be “Evoked” �See the examples of types of Motivating approaches used with children in a school classroom

Conditioned Motivating Operations �Three types of CMO’s 1) Surrogate (CMO-S) • Has the same value-altering and behavior altering effects as the MO it was paired with • Can be altered by pairing and unpairing 2) Reflexive (CMO-R) • Acquires MO effectiveness by preceding some form of worsening or improvement • Example: a warning stimulus in a typical escapeavoidance procedure; evokes behavior that produces the offset

Conditioned Motivating Operations, cont’d 3) Transitive (CMO-T) • Makes another stimulus effective as a reinforcer by prior pairing with an unconditioned reinforcer. • All variables that function as UMOs will function as CMO-Ts for the stimuli that are conditioned reinforcers due to prior pairing with that unconditioned reinforcer (I. e. it is a Conditioned MO and due to being a conditioned reinforcer ) (From Cooper et. al. , 2007, p. 387. ) • The reinforcer may available in presence or absence of the stimulus. For example, an activity, action, or toy is available but if there is no evocative MO, behavior of accessing the item will not occur.

Module VI Motivating Operations � Examples of “evocative” MO’s CMO: Provide a child with a bag of toys s/he likes to play with to select one toy to earn when a task is completed (such as matching colors). When the task is complete, the instructor gives the child the toy to play with. This makes it more likely that the instructor will serve as an Sd to do tasks requested in the future under these circumstances 2) UMO: A child has not had a snack all morning and is hungry – the child cries on seeing her mother. The mother gives the child a snack. This results in “satiating” the hunger, and reinforces crying to get food in the future when hungry and she sees her mother 1)

Module VI Setting Events �The term “Setting Events” can be found in Wahler and Fox (1981) �Currently, Setting Events have been reconsidered as a type of MO but are still useful to consider when assessing behavior and effects of contingencies of reinforcement �The concept of “setting factors” is defined as “the general surrounding circumstances that operate as inhibiting or facilitating conditions in a behavioral unit. ” (Bijou & Ribes, 1996, p. 149)

Module VI Setting Events �Kantor (1959, p. 95) stated: “ Such setting factors as the hungry or satiated condition of the organism, its age, hygienic or toxic conditions, as well as the presence or absence of certain environing objects clearly influence the occurrence or non-occurrence of interbehavior or facilitate the occurrence of the activities in question in varying degrees. ”

Module VI Setting Events �May happen in or out of a classroom or other location �Are conditions that affect the likelihood behavior will occur �Michael (1982, 1993) defines setting events as variables before behavior that affect the function of antecedents �Some examples of such events include: - oversleeping - no breakfast - forgotten medication - conflict with another person (parent, sibling,

Module VI: Setting Events, Cont’d �Operant Diagram for Including Setting Events (SE’s) SE/MO Sd Behavior Reinforcer The “SE” term is added or included with the MO term in the four term contingency diagram. �SEs are a general overarching concept that can affect behavior due to a variety of factors (motivational, emotional, contextual) �MOs are defined by their effect on the value of the reinforcer and the behavior evoked to obtain the reinforcer. These effects are relatively short-term and transient

Module VI Setting Events, continued Types of Antecedents and Setting Events: �medical and physiological issues �environmental conditions �social and interactional factors �curriculum and instruction �personal and control issues

Module VI Setting Events Antecedents that affect behavior? �Noise level �Temperature �Lighting �People �Anxiety �Hunger �Pain �Fatigue

Module VI Setting Events Use of Setting Event Manipulations for Behavior Problems �Involves altering Contextual Variables �Can help ameliorate or prevent problem behaviors �Can create opportunities for adaptive skills instruction

Module VI Setting Events, continued �Bijou (Bijou & Ribes, 1996, ch. 8) suggests several categories of “setting factors” that affect: a) The Physiological State of a person - E. gs. Pain, injury, illness, disease, etc. b) The Physical Circumstances of a person - e. gs. Temperature, climate, room color, clothing or any other physical aspects of the environment c) The Sociocultural Conditions of a person - e. gs. Rules, institutional standards (religious, social), laws of a society or culture (such as state, country, or other entity or jurisdiction)

Module VI Generalization and Maintenance �In order for behaviors or skills learned in one situation or setting, and with a specific trainer or trainers, it has been found that these skills do not automatically occur in new settings �This finding has been particularly evident for those with developmental disabilities and autism spectrum disorders in which children with autism tend to become very dependent upon the cues given by their teacher or other person providing training in various skills. �This phenomenon is known as “prompt dependence” for children with autism receiving Discrete Trials Training

Module VI Generalization �There are two types of generalization in behavior analysis terminology 1) Stimulus Generalization: Responding in the presence of a particular stimulus (Sd) and others like it along a dimension (such as color) similarly. - The “flip side” of this is discrimination, in which the response only occurs in the presence of that stimulus, and no others along that dimension. - For example, a child who responds “red” when seeing an orange block is displaying stimulus generalization.

Diagram for Stimulus Generalization �S 1 �S 2 �S 3 �S 4 �S 5 �Sx R 1

Module VI Generalization 2) Response Generalization: This is when many new or different responses are emitted in the presence of the same stimulus. - For example, a child can get to school various ways: by walking; running; taking the bus; riding a bicycle; getting a car ride, and so on. Each is a different response with the same antecedent and outcome – getting to school - Another example is using a knife or other sharp implement to open a letter because you do not have a letter opener available.

Diagram for Response Generalization R 1 R 2 • S 1 Sr+, R 3 Rx

Module VI Generalization � The idea of generalization is to promote BOTH response AND stimulus generalization such that new responses emerge or will be displayed with the same items or materials, or tools, etc. , and also to display the skills or behavior in different settings and situations or contexts, and with different people present. Examples: � A child should be able to read a book at home, school, the library, in a restaurant, and so on � Children in a class should follow the instructions and rules of their regular classroom teacher and a substitute teacher, or teachers for math, history, science, phys. ed. , and so on � A child learns to swim using the back stroke, but then also can do the butterfly stroke, breast stroke, and others. � A child learns to swim first in the school swimming pool, but is also able to swim in the ocean, and in other swimming pools at home or a friend’s house.

Module VI Generalization �It is best to not create such “prompt dependence” to begin with �Training for Generalization, and maintenance – that is, maintaining the level of skills and behaviors learned – has become a critical aspect of applied behavior analysis programs and interventions in the past 20+ years

Module VI Generalization �Methods for generalization should begin early on in training �Such methods include: - Training loosely, i. e. use various materials that differ from the original target training materials. For example, teach reading words/letters using different books, materials, colors, and handwritten, hand printed, machine printed, different font sizes, and so on

Module VI Generalization, cont’d �Use various exemplars and models �Train the skills in different settings and with different people involved in the training (teachers, staff, and so on) �Use natural environments and the setting or situation and materials where the behavior is to take place (i. e. teach cooking in the kitchen where the cooking will occur, and with the cooking implements that will be used regularly)

Module VI Generalization �Whenever possible, direct instruction should take place in the target environment adding to it only as much in the way of contrived contingencies as is necessary to efficiently obtain the desired behavior change �Use general case responding methods �Select antecedents to be used during direct instruction that can be gradually altered to approximate the stimuli in the target environment. �Vary the prosthetic instruments (e. g. , bicycle, eating utensils, computer keyboard) mediating the response(s) and consequence(s) to promote response generalization.

Module VI Generalization Examples of generalization training: You want to teach students to cook a meal, and you have taught this in a mock kitchen at the school. You are concerned that the skills won’t occur at home or other places. So, to promote generalization, you also run the cooking classes in the school cafeteria, and then in your home, and in some of the children’s homes (with parental approval and supervision)

Module VI Generalization and Maintenance: �Maintenance refers to the extent to which changes in behavior engendered by a contingency persist over time given that the contingency remains unchanged �It is also used to refer to a collection of procedures designed to maintain behavior at the current level after an acquisition phase.

Module VI Generalization and Maintenance: �Gradually approximate the antecedent stimulus conditions of the target environment by fading in natural distracters within the training environment. �Select antecedent stimuli for the training environment that can be altered to gradually approximate the stimuli in the target environment �Gradually change the nature of consequent stimulus conditions from contrived to natural reinforcers

Module VI Generalization and Maintenance: �Gradually approximate the schedule of consequent stimuli in the target environment within the training environment. �Gradually approximate the consequent stimulus conditions of the target environment by delaying reinforcement within the training environment or by varying the types of reinforcement within the training environment. �Arrange contingencies within the target environment to promote generality (e. g. , train the repertoires of others).

Module VI: Maintenance �Example of a Maintenance Plan: You have taught a child how to look up topics in a dictionary to aid in doing homework assignments. You ensure the child has a dictionary, and also how to access online dictionaries. You review with the student weekly initially, then monthly, and then periodically (perhaps on average quarterly), then do a six month follow up to ensure the skill was retained, and provide corrective feedback or suggestions, as well as periodic praise as positive reinforcement

Stimulus Equivalence – � This is a paradigm based on the work originated by Sidman. This approach is predicated on knowing about discrete trial approaches and match-to-sample teaching methods, as well as errorless learning. So, our discussion of this topic will include learning other key teaching strategies in Applied Behavior Analysis. Stimulus Equivalence is considered a uniquely human ability for which non-human animals do not have the capacity. However, some animal studies have demonstrated it at basic levels.

Stimulus Equivalence Diagram of Sample Stimulus Equivalence Model A. Sample Stimulus (verbal) B. Printed Word C. Picture D. Spoken Word

Modeling: � Refers to behaving in the manner of , or “imitating” a model. Usually, modeling can be used to teach many new skills (from desired behavior to self-help skills such as tying shoes, buttoning, hand-washing, performing academic tasks, and so on). � The person must first have an “imitative repertoire, ” which can be taught if needed. Research indicates that children are more likely to model the behavior of a person with whom they can identify (same ethnic background, same sex, etc. ). � Bandura (1969, 1993) has shown that children will imitate an adult’s behavior on a video, including aggression. Also, children imitate an adult whose behavior is being reinforced, and stop modeling behavior of an adult being punished � Video modeling studies (e. g. Charlop-Christy et. al. 2000) has shown children with autism will model their own behavior or that of a peer when shown a video of the behavior (self or peer). This is also the basis of some peer modeling studies.

Errorless Teaching: �This is a method of teaching, which, as the name indicates, does not allow for errors. Each trial results in success and reinforcement for the learner. Errorless learning techniques are quite varied and there are many possibilities. Using physical guidance (hand-over-hand, and graduated guidance) with fading, least-to-most prompts, most-to-least prompts, and other cues such as stimulus shaping and stimulus fading, proximity cues, etc.

Programmed Instruction: � Errorless Learning usually is used in conjunction with programmed instruction, which refers to a structured method of teaching a task or skill by breaking the larger task into very small or discrete steps, evaluating performance (baseline), then using errorless learning to teach the task with ongoing data collection to document and monitor progress or to make data-based changes accordingly. � First, of course, a clear goal for what is to be learned must be devised with measurable objectives for what is to be learned, when etc. Use of “Discrete Trial Training” (DTT) with autistic children, is such an example.

Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) � PSI was introduced by Fred Keller, who was a professor at Columbia University, and who had collaborated with B. F. Skinner and others in the early stages of the field of behavior analysis. � Keller wrote the article in JABA titled “Goodbye Teacher” (1968). Keller devised this methodology as a replacement for traditional lecture-based university courses. � In PSI, (AKA the “Keller Method”) students proceed at their own pace, take quizzes for modules that cover specific topic or content areas of a course, and when the quiz is passed, the student moves on to the next module until the course is completed.

PSI, continued �Typically there are no comprehensive or cumulative exams or a final exam. Each quiz stands on its own to cover the specific content learned in a module. �There may be videos to watch and there are readings from a book and currently use of online courses deliver content in slides or a similar online delivery system. �Studies on PSI have shown longer retention of the material learned relative to standard lecture courses with a mid-term and final exam.

Matching Law �The matching law (Herrnstein, 1961; 1970) states that behavior in a choice situation will be distributed among the choices proportional to the reinforcement provided on each choice. �Hence, in a choice situation if there is twice as much reinforcement provided on one alternative than another, the person will respond at twice the rate or frequency on that alternative relative to the other choice.

Matching Law, continued �Basic Proportional Matching Law formula: __R 1__ R 1 + R 2 = rft. 1__ rft. 1 + rft. 2 Where R = Response rate on a given alternative And rft. = rate of reinforcement on that alternative. By entering the obtained data from a study with two alternatives, the calculations should yield equivalent or approximately equivalent results for both sides of the equation.

Behavioral Momentum: Behavioral Momentum was first studied in nonhumans (Nevin), but was later studied as a behavioral approach with humans by C. F. Mace (Mace, West, et. al. 1988). In this approach, a child is “encouraged” to engage in a nonpreferred task or activity, such as taking out the trash, or brushing his/her teeth, or engaging in more socially acceptable behavior, by first asking the child to engage in a fairly quick sequence of activities he or she prefers or will usually do when asked.

Behavioral Momentum, Cont’d �Then, the less or low preferred activity is requested at the end of this sequence. This is not considered to be an operant phenomenon, rather it is a Respondent one based upon “SS” relations. (I. e. some type of motivational aspect based on prior conditioning). Be sure to know that this method is very different from the “Premack Principle. ” �Task: Articulate a behavioral momentum approach you would use to get a child to 1) clean her room; 2) clear the table; & 3) wash hands before dinner. �Lo p follows Hi p sequence.

Premack Principle �The Premack Principle, first introduced by David Premack (1959), is a hypothesis that making a high probability (Hi-P) behavior contingent on a Low probability (Lo-P) behavior, will increase the frequency of the Lo -P behavior (i. e. will reinforce it). This is also known colloquially as “Grandma’s Law. ” This idea pertains to such common practices as telling a child that unless they complete their homework, they don’t get to go out to play or watch television that evening.

Premack Principle & RDH �Later, a more fully developed theory was proposed by Timberlake & Allison (1974) referred to as the Response-Deprivation Hypothesis (RDH). This approach has many possibilities for behavior intervention in applied situations. � This view hypothesized that restricted access to one activity or behavior that is made contingent on another low frequency behavior will function as a reinforcer and increase the frequency of the Lo-P behavior.

Response Deprivation Hypothesis �Conversely, these authors proposed that unrestricted access to an activity that is made contingent on another behavior that may be a high probability behavior will reduce the frequency of the Hi-P behavior, and thus functions as a punisher. �These operations thus presumably function as Motivating Operations that can in turn affect behavior based on deprivation or satiation.

Adjunctive Behavior � This is also known as “schedule-induced” behavior � The behavior, such as drinking, is an adjunct to another related behavior that occurs as a result of the scheduling of the other behavior or activity. This could be food consumption for example. � Pica behavior is considered an example of an adjunctive behavior � Also, over-drinking of liquids, known as “polydipsia” as well as smoking, drug or substance abuse, among other behaviors � Research on Adjunctive behaviors has shown it is not affected by operant or respondent learning processes. Rather, such behavior can be changed by altering the schedule of the behavior for which it is adjunctive. (See Lerman et. al, 1994, JABA) � Papers have made the claim that adjunctive behavior is a third class (e. g. Wetherington, 1982)

Behavioral Contrast � Behavioral Contrast was first introduced by Reynolds (1961) � Contrast is a phenomenon in which behavior goes in the opposite direction following a change in a contingency � Laboratory studies have typically used multiple schedules to study this phenomenon � For example temporary loss of access to a reinforcer results in a dramatic increase in responding once reintroduced relative to another situation in which the reinforcement schedule remained the same. � For example, you are driving along the road when a pick-up truck gets in front of you and you slow down to 30 mph in a 50 mph zone. When the pick-up truck

Behavioral Contrast �Contrast can also occur when punishing behavior in one setting or situation that was previously reinforced. �This can in result an increase in responding in another situation in which the behavior is still reinforced but the rate of reinforcement has not changed �For example, students are talking in a classroom when the teacher leaves the room. She returns and scolds them for talking too loudly during classroom time. When she leaves the next time the students talk even

Direct Instruction �Direct Instruction is associated with the work of Siegfried Engelmann (1975) and is based on group instruction and coral responding to practice and correct errors for students, and uses programmed instructional materials. Programmed instruction books such as those published by SRA Reading Labs are used for Direct Instruction.

Group Contingencies � There are 3 types of group contingencies (also known as “molar” contingencies) 1) 2) 3) Independent – in this type of group contingency, there is a standard or group set of rules and behavior expectations, however each person in the group earns reinforcement independent of others in the group (it could be points or tokens). Earning or not earning these reinforcers does not affect the reinforcers or privileges of others in the group. Dependent – in this type, the behavior of one person or a small group affects whether all others in the group earn the reinforcers available. This is also known as the “hero” procedure and can foster a team approach, or supportive environment. However, it can also foster undesired consequences of the individual or small group does not achieve the criterion. Interdependent – in this type, all members of the group must achieve the behavior criterion for the members to earn the reinforcers or privileges. If only one person does not achieve the criterion then all members of the group do not earn the reinforcer or privilege. This approach can also result in undesired consequences for the individual who does not

Module VI Summary Topics covered in this Module include: � Motivating Operations, including Establishing and Abolishing Operations, Conditioned and Unconditioned MOs, CMO-S, R, T. � Setting Events � Generalization of skills or behaviors learned � Maintenance of skills or behaviors learned � Stimulus Equivalence, Modeling, Matching Law, Errorless Teaching, Programmed Instruction, PSI, Behavioral Momentum, Premack Principle, Response Deprivation, Adjunctive Behavior, Behavioral Contrast, Direct Instruction, & Group Contingencies.