Literature review Research Questions RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Objectives By

Literature review, Research Questions RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Objectives By the end of this week students should: Know how to conduct the literature review Form a synthesis of the literature review sources Be able to state the research questions Identify important variables for the Methodology

Keywords Literature review Research questions-hypotheses Synthesis of the sources Null and alternative hypotheses Qualitative and Quantitative approach Electronic sources ERIC database

Important points about literature review Ø Literature review (LR) is the most important stage of an empirical research. It lays the foundation for identifying the critical parts of prior research actions that need to be further investigated. Ø LR helps the researcher identify previous research material and gaps so she/he can begin the new research endeavour. Ø The researcher usually has a rough idea of the topic she/he is interested in. LR helps the researcher refine and/or modify it in a workable and practical way. Ø Nowadays there is an abundance of sources available for LR. The researcher should exercise extreme caution to identify the most appropriate.

Challenges about LR Ø Some reviews consist of studies unrelated to each other or to the new study Ø Many theories were included in the LR without any logical connection and without pointing to the need for a new study Ø Not recent references Ø Even if a number of appropriate references become available, the researcher makes no attempt to form a coherent synthesis of them but rather simply offers a listing of them.

Two approaches Usually, there are two approaches in setting up a research plan: Ø The researcher has a clear understanding of the research topic and LR helps her/him identify research questions and proceed with the analysis. It is used extensively (but not exclusively) in quantitative analysis. Ø LR helps the researcher get familiar with fundamental aspects of the problem. It is not unlikely that the researcher changes the initial topic. A favorite of qualitative methodology. Ø Although theoretical difficulties do exist, in practice researchers employ a bit of both methods.

General guidelines of LR Ø It involves gathering articles, documents, etc. Ø Appropriate sources of information include peerreviewed material with empirical evidence Ø Strive for relevance, not just accumulating papers. Ø Most importantly, LR entails providing a synthesis (not a listing) of the above sources, thus creating a solid theoretical springboard for the research questions and the methodology.

Sources & tips for LR Ø Library services Ø Electronic databases Ø Networking with fellow researchers Ø Always keep a list of the sources as you proceed with a brief summary of each one. Do not try to understand everything but rather the gist. Ø Recent sources are preferable. Ø Always look at ERIC (http: //www. eric. ed. gov/) and click at Advanced Search for more options (click also at fulltext availability)

Sources & tips for LR-2 Ø Other electronic databases include: Web of Science Scholar Google Ø Choice between books and articles Books offer a vast array of references and theories. However, they are harder to get electronically. Articles, are easy to read, more accessible electronically but provide the authors’ perspective only. You need a lot of them.

Further questions regarding LR Ø Should we use non-scholarly material? Ø Is it appropriate to use bachelors and masters theses in addition to doctoral dissertations? Ø Do we include quotations in LR? Ø What about novel areas with scant literature? Ø Should we use statistics, laws etc. in LR? Ø Should there be a balance between books and articles? Ø How do conference proceedings rank as scholarly material?

Final thoughts in LR Ø Allow enough time for LR. It pays off at the end. Ø Collect a lot of sources. Most recent and/or the highly cited ones are the most appropriate. Look for the seminal works on each field. Ø Use mostly articles, books and peer-reviewed conference proceedings, Ø Keep non-scholarly material to a minimum. Ø Avoid quotations, statistics, laws. Ø Not much use of bachelors or masters theses. Ø For every source, keep a record with the main points. Ø Synthesize your work. Ø Get feedback from fellow researchers. Ø Keep practicing and writing!

Research questions should be: Ø Clear and unambiguous Ø Related to the research Ø Are not trivial Ø Can be answered Ø Although independent from each other, they should form a coherent research direction.

Qualitative research questions Ø Researchers state questions, not objectives or predictions. Ø There is a central question (aim of the study) and associated subquestions. Ø The central question is a broad question usually asking for the exploration of a concept or a phenomenon. Ø Subquestions narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning. Ø Begin the research questions with the words “what” or “how” to display the open nature of the research. Avoid “why” since it often implies association-causation usually reserved for quantitative analysis.

Qualitative research questions-2 Ø Use exploratory verbs such as “discover”, “seek”, “explore”, “describe”, “report”. Ø In general avoid using directional verbs such as “affect”. “influence”, “determine”, “relate”, “impact”, etc. mostly referred in quantitative studies. Ø Use open-ended questions Ø Research questions do not necessarily remain fixed throughout the study

Quantitative research questions & hypotheses Ø Research questions break down the overall aim of the study inquiring about specific relationships among variables. Ø Especially used in survey studies Ø Research hypotheses are specific predictions that the researcher makes about expected relationships among variables. Ø Require the use of statistical techniques drawing inference about the population from a study sample. Ø Hypotheses are often used in experiments where investigators compare groups. Ø Hypotheses are usually applied in a research project or a dissertation to display the direction of the research.

Quant. research questions & hypotheses-2 Ø The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent variable. Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more dependent variables. Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables. Ø The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This procedure reinforces the cause -and-effect logic of quantitative research.

Quant. research questions & hypotheses-3 Ø Prefer either research questions or research hypotheses, not both. Sometimes, though, hypotheses elaborate on the questions. Ø There are two forms of hypotheses. A null hypothesis (the traditional approach) and the alternative hypothesis (the researcher’s prediction). Ø The alternative hypothesis may or may not have specific direction Ø Mixed methods combining qualitative questions and quantitative questions and hypotheses are becoming more popular.

Keep in mind Ø LR precedes the research questions stage which in turn precede methodology. Follow these steps! Ø Do not have many research questions. Ø Creativity is always a plus-you may work independently within a group and exchange research questions. Ø Practicing will help you refine these techniques. Do not expect to be superb the first time!

Practice activity 1 Research topic 1: School achievement and socioeconomic status. Research topic 2: Parental involvement and student’s delinquent behavior. For each topic: Conduct a brief LR 2. State either the qualitative questions or quantitative questions and hypotheses 1.

Practice activity 2 Read the attached article: Scholars Before Researchers: On the Centrality of the Dissertation Literature Review in Research Preparation, by D. N. Boote and P. Beile, Educational Researcher, 2005, 3 -15. Questions: 1. What is the authors’ stance on doctoral candidates’ LR skills? 2. How do they empirically support their belief ? 3. What exactly is shown in Table 1? 4. Provide an assessment of the article offering alternative ways of checking the authors’ main position.