LINGUISTICS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OF LINGUISTICS METODOLOGI

LINGUISTICS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY / RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OF LINGUISTICS (METODOLOGI PENELITIAN LINGUISTIK) Academic year: 2019/2020 Semester: Odd Semester (V) Class: 04, 05, and 06 Department: English Department Faculty: Letters and Culture University: Gunadarma Aim of the subject: To guide students to do research on linguistics-related subjects, hence they can practice how to solve problem, particularly linguistics problems, scientifically as their academic moral responsibility. Lecturer: Dr. Suparto, S. S. , S. Hum. , M. Hum.

I. INTRODUCTION What is linguistics research methodology? Linguistics: the scientific study of language Language: arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Research: 1. careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something (https: //www. merriam-webster. com); 2. systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts (www. businessdictionary. com); 3. diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc. (www. dictionary. com). Methodology: 1. a set of methods, rules, or ideas that are important in science or art (https: //www. merriam-webster. com); 2. A system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity (https: //en. oxforddictionaries. com). 3. the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study (https: //en. m. wikipedia. org).

Linguistics research methodology means, for example, a set of methods, rules, or ideas that are important in science or art of careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something on the scientific study of language OR You can have your own descriptive definition of it as long as it is scientifically accountable. Chronological steps in linguistics research: 1. Looking for research problems 2. Finding research problems 3. Limiting research problems 4. Formulating research problems 5. Solving research problems 6. Answering research problems 7. Concluding research problems

1. Looking for research problems: a researcher must know the general knowledge of linguistics issues, but there is still something unclear. 2. Finding research problems: once a researcher found unclear linguistics issues, he/she has found research problems. 3. Limiting research problems: research problems found must be limited the coverage to make the analysis deeper and more detail. 4. Formulating research problems: in general, it can be broadly classified into 2: (1) general problem formulation, and (2) specific problem formulations. Conventionally formulating research problems is in question sentences: what question (whatness), why question (whyness) and how question (howness). 5. Solving research problems: (1) providing research data; (2) analyzing research data; (3) presenting the analyzed research data. 6. Answering research problems: there must be an answer for every research problem formulated 7. Concluding research problems: in basic, it refers to the general answer of the research problem formulated.

Preparing research topics: A. Rational basis of preparing research topics: 1. Interestedness to a topic to research 2. Mastery on a topic to research 3. Availability of research data / the ease to get research data 4. Mixture of the three B. Things to do to make preparation of research topic easier to find: 1. Reading research reports/journals available in libraries 2. Reviewing research reports/journals Things to do to review research reports/journals: Focus on reading the research title, research questions, research methods, research approach, and research results. 3. How to write reviews of research reports/journals: 1. Classify based on topic of the research reports/journals, 2. Arrange chronologically, Write briefly the topic and the results of the research with which the position of your research is clearly understood.

Preparing research title: A good research title is derived from developing research gaps as the results of reading and reviewing research reports/journals and the like. Such a research title can serve as both topic and theme of the research. Research title, ideally, can represent a whole picture of the research. Preparing research rationales: Research rationales: logical reasons from which a research is worth doing. Research rationales, usually, consist of: 1. background of study, 2. research problem formulations, 3. limitation/scope of a research, 4. aims of study, and 5. significance of a study. How will you write background of study? Basically, it comprises of: 1. why it is necessary to research the topic, and 2. how to write the research topic. Why is it necessary to write the research topic? In this part, you must explain logical reasons from which your research can be clearly and distinctly different from others.

How will you write the research topic? Here, you are to explain: 1. the research methods that you are to apply, and 2. theoretical framework/approach which you are to employ. The possibility of applying some research method depends on: 1. the nature of research data, and 2. the nature of research design. What theoretical framework/approach will you employ? It must refer to the rational basis of preparing the research topic: 1. interestedness, 2. degree of mastery on the research topic, and 3. mixture of both. How will you write research problem formulations? Based on the degree of difficulty, basically, there are three kinds of research problem formulations: 1. What questions, 2. Why questions, and 3. How questions. If you are to have three kinds as your problem formulations, logically, you must arrange three consecutively: what questions must come before why questions, and why questions must come before how questions.

How will you write aims of the research? Here, you are to refer to research problems formulated quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitatively, the number of aims of the research must be the same with the number of research problems. Qualitatively, aims of the research must logically agree about the nature of research problems. Examples: Problem formulations: 1. What English verb is grammatically correct to be constructed passively? 2. Why is the English verb grammatically correct to be constructed passively? Aims of the research: 1. To know the kind of English verb which is grammatically correct to be constructed passively. 2. To explain/elaborate the reasons of the English verb which is grammatically correct to be constructed passively.

How will you write scope/limitation of the research? Here, you are to refer to research problems formulated qualitatively. It refers to the thing that belongs to your main research topic reflected in your research problems. Example: Problem formulations: 1. What English verb is grammatically correct to be constructed passively? 2. Why is the English verb grammatically correct to be constructed passively? Scope/limitation of the research: The scope/coverage of this research limits to the kind of English verb which is grammatically correct to be constructed passively. It does not discuss another kind of English verb which is, for example, correct to be constructed directly/indirectly.

How will you write significance of the research? It refers to usefulness of the research results and their implications. In general, it can be broadly categorized into: 1. theoretical significance, and 2. practical significance. It also refers to contributions that may it has to the development of science related to the topic. It, logically, cannot be separated from other components of research rationale. Each component of it is logically related. In this part, you are to convince your readers that they agree with you about it. Accordingly, normally, it is argumentatively written.

II. RESEARCH PARADIGMS Empirically, there are three dominant research paradigms: 1. quantitative, 2. qualitative, and 3. mixture of both. The first two are paradoxes. It is due to different philosophical basis that they have. Quantitative research relies on positivism. Qualitative research relies on naturalism. Referring to positivism: 1. Ontologically, something (nature of reality) is singular, homogenous, tangible, and fragmentable. 2. Epistemologically, something is value-free. The relation between researcher and things to research is like mirror and an object before the mirror (discrete dualism). A researcher is independent from things to research. 3. Axiologically, the main aim of research is to develop nomotethic knowledge, a knowledge that is one hence it can be generalized all over the world, because such a knowledge is time-free, place-free and context-free. Example: when a piece of iron is heated, it, then, will expand. It happens everywhere.

Referring to naturalism: 1. Ontologically, something (nature of reality) is plural, heterogeneous, intangible, and holistic (unfragmentable). 2. Epistemologically, something is value-driven (value-laden). The relation between researcher and things to research is interdependent, interactive, they cannot be separated discretely. To get a holistic meaning, a heterogeneous reality must be constructed holistically with its context. 3. Axiologically, the main aim of research is to develop idiographic knowledge. It refers to a kind of knowledge which is dependent on subject of study (both the researcher and the researched), subjects involved in the study, and context of the study. It is due to the different ontological and epistemological basis. Example: the concept of happiness. To some people, it has different concept. People believing in the existence of God have different concept in comparison with people disbelieving in the existence of God. Their value concepts and worldviews influence it.

In short 1. Qualitative research emphasizes on the qualities of entities and on processes and meaning that are not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning (www. libguides. usc. edu). 2. Quantitative research studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationship between variables, not process (www. libguides. usc. edu). .

Research design applying both quantitative and qualitative: 1. Usually it starts from quantitative with tight design added with qualitative to get ethnographic information. 2. Usually it starts with hypothesis with quantitative data processed with statistic procedures. 3. Having resulted formulation whether or not the hypothesis is accepted, the researcher does observation directly, interview key informants, or make Focus Group Discussion (FGD) to get qualitative information to strengthen either refusal or support to the hypothesis. 4. Referring to researcher adopting this research design, a researcher will have more comprehensive information on the nature of the research. 5. In fact, such a research design is usually quantitatively dominated.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POSITIVISM AND NATURALISM Philosophical axioms on Positivism Naturalism The nature of reality (sifat alamiah suatu kenyataan) Homogeneous, tangible, fragmentable Heterogeneous, intangible, infragmentanle The relation between researcher and researched Independent, discrete dualism Interdependent, interactive, inseparable The possibility of generalization Time free and context free, nomotethic Time bound and context bound, idiographic The causative relation The causer is real, sometimes it happens before or together with the effect All entities are formed simultaneously and forming each other; the cause and effect cannot be separated Value free Value driven

Characteristics of qualitative research 1. Descriptive does not always mean qualitative. There is a descriptive research belonging to quantitative. Example: research data can be described quantitatively through: mode, median, and mean, and the variability measurement can be described quantitatively through: range, standard deviation, and variance. Usually qualitative research is descriptive. It aims at understanding and describing cultural phenomena hidden or little known by people. Research data used to describe the phenomena qualitatively is discursive data. The discursive data is in the form of words, phrases, and clauses in sentences in a paragraph or cohesive texts. In addition to it, discursive data can also be in pictures, tables, diagrams, etc. By involving these multimodalities, the description of phenomena can be more systematically, systemically, and holistically elaborated. 2. Inductive. It uses particular examples to reach a general conclusion about something (www. meriam-webster. com). It is usually also called “bottom-up approach” (www. socialresearchmethods. net). Data > Observation > Pattern > Tentative hypothesis > Theory

3. Intuitive. In addition to using propositional and discursive knowledge, qualitative research paradigm empowers intuitive knowledge. It is driven by the fact that qualitative research is complex and heterogeneous which is sometime difficult to understand by applying propositional and discursive knowledge. Researchers’ intuitive knowledge reflecting continuous and focused experiences on something is very helpful to make the research done well. Example: How to choose good durian? Buyers (inexperienced persons): they will use their discursive knowledge (knowledge they got from reading on it). Sellers (experienced persons): they will use their intuition (intuitive knowledge). 4. Purposive sampling. It is a kind of the way to get sample by referring to criterion-based selection. There must be definite parameters to apply to employ it. The parameters must refer to the problem formulation. It is done because it also has certain aims. Example: Problem formulation: What concrete noun does undergo class maintaining derivation in English? Aims of the research: To identify a kind of concrete noun which undergoes class maintaining derivation in English.

Sample of the research: concrete nouns which undergo class maintaining derivation. Sampling technique: purposive sampling/criterion based sampling. How does it work? 1. Researcher must understand the general concept of concrete nouns and class maintaining derivation. 2. Researcher must determine the research data sources. 3. Researcher must read sentences in English texts containing concrete nouns which undergoes class maintaining derivation. 4. Research must be able to identify correctly the concrete nouns intended. 5. Researcher must take a note to the concrete nouns. 6. The number of concrete nouns collected is not quantitatively determined. 7. The parameter of concrete nouns that you are to collect is the ability of the concrete nouns collected to answer the research problem. 8. If it is considered that the research data sources are still inadequate, s/he can take other data sources to complete. The procedures of 1 -7 belong to purposive sampling. The procedure of 8 is called snowball sampling.

Qualitative research is not suitable to use either random sampling or representative sampling. Both samplings can potentially eliminate heterogeneous realities of the research data. 5. Humans as the research instrument. Human is always involved as instrument to collect data. The reasons of it are: a) human is the most adaptive reality to new environment; b) human has the highest potential to think abstractly. Example: How do you understand “Dia mengurusi badannya secara sungguh-sungguh. ” Does the bold word derive from “urus” or “kurus? ” It is only human who can answer, the most advanced computer is still hard to differentiate its meaning. Such a kind of finding the answer is an example of abstract thinking.

6. On-the-spot or emergence research design. Qualitative research tolerates to change the research design in the mid of research process. Such a research design is flexible. It is intended to anticipate the heterogeneous reality that is sometimes difficult to set in the beginning of research process. The change of research design can happen because of: a) The inadequacy of data sources and data to uncover the complex and heterogeneous reality caused by the betterment of the researcher’s understanding to theories empowered or new research findings found; b) Lack of previous research review; c) The change of research approach. Initial research design is needed to guide to do research hence the research can be relatively effectively conducted in comparison with no initial research design. BUT When the initial research design is less suitable to uncover the reality of the research data, to the change research design is something necessary.

III. METHODOLOGY, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE 1. Methodology: morphologically it is from ‘method’: the way that someone hat to go through, ‘(o)logy’: discipline of study or branch of knowledge. Several descriptive definitions of methodology: a) A body of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline (www. merriam-webster. com). b) A system of ways of doing, teaching, or studying something (www. dictionary. cambridge. org). c) A system of methods and principles for doing something, for example for teaching or for carrying out research (www. collinsdictionary. com). d) A set or system of methods, principles, and rules for regulating a given discipline, as in the arts or sciences (www. dictionary. com). Adjective: methodological Adverb: methodologically Noun: methodologist, methodoogy

2. Method: etymologically, it is from (a) Latin methodus “way of teaching or going, ” (b) Greek methodos “scientific inquiry. ” Several descriptive definitions of method: a) A procedure or process for attaining an object (www. merriam-webster. com). b) A particular form of procedure for accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one (http: //en. oxforddictionaries. com). c) An established, habitual, logical, or prescribed practice or systematic process of achieving certain ends with accuracy and efficiency, usually in an ordered sequence of fixed steps (www. businessdictionary. com). Example: Question (Q): How will you improve your English grammar? Answer (A): I will improve my English grammar by reading English grammar books. It means that reading is the method of improving English grammar.

3. Technique: a) The manner in which technical details are treated (www. merriamwebster. com). b) The manner and ability with which an artist, writer, dancer, athlete, or the like employs the technical skills of a particular art or field of endeavor (www. dictionary. com). c) A systematic procedure, formula, or routine by which a task is accomplished ( www. businessdictionary. com). In conclusion, technique is the way of doing or applying certain systematic procedures/manners to reach a goal. Example: Q: How do you read English grammar books to improve your English grammar knowledge? A: I will read my English grammar books to improve my English grammar knowledge by scanning, skimming, loud reading, or silent reading. Scanning, skimming, loud reading, or silent reading are techniques NOT methods

IV. DATA SOURCES AND DATA 1. Data sources: the place from which the data come. Examples: magazine, newspaper, book, periodical, document, informant, respondent, etc. The number of data sources to use depends on complexity of the research focus. The more complex the research focus the more various the data sources. Examples: What linguistic unit does frequently appear in the title of editorial column of English newspaper published in Indonesia? In such a research the data sources are English newspaper published in Indonesia. It can be one newspaper, but it can also be more than one. It depends on the scope of the study. It would be much better if more than one newspaper, because the problem formulation implied more than one.

2. Data: It is the research object to which the focus of our research is addressed. It functions as the main material which will be analyzed to uncover the research problem formulation. Data is different from data sources. Example: What linguistic unit does frequently appear in the title of editorial column of English newspaper published in Indonesia? In such a problem formulation, the research data is linguistic unit(s) serving as the title of editorial column of English newspaper published in Indonesia. Theoretically, linguistic units can range from phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, clause, and sentence. Understanding well the research problem formulation is a necessary condition to understand the correct research data.

Kinds of Data: Research data functions as the material object of a research. Material object is the raw ingredients which will be cooked by certain techniques. It can be classified into several classifications depending on the parameter to apply. 1. Based on the way to get the data: A. Primary data: data collected by the researcher him/herself. Example: data collected by student for his/her research project. B. Secondary data: data collected by someone else but another one wanted to utilize the data. Example: The English grammar scores to analyze the degree of students writing readability.

2. Based on the nature of the data: A. Qualitative data: data that cannot be expressed in number. Usually such the data is discursive. Example: What sentence is the most frequently spoken by English students during their speaking class? The data of this problem formulation is qualitative. B. Quantitative data: data that can be realized in numbers and mathematical calculations. Example: What English grammar scores have high degree of writing readability? The data of it is quantitative. It refers to certain classification of scores, e. g. 70 -80, or 81 -100, etc.

V. SAMPLING AND SAMPLE 1. Sampling: the processes whereby a researcher chooses her/his sample/the way to get sample. It originates from quantitative research paradigm. Kinds/types of sampling (in quantitative research paradigm): a. Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is produced by a scheme which ensures that each subgroup of the population of size n has an equal probability of being chosen as the sample. b. Stratified Random Sampling: Divide the population into "strata". There can be any number of these. Then choose a simple random sample from each stratum. Combine those into the overall sample. That is a stratified random sample. (Example: School A has 600 women and 400 women as members. One way to get a stratified random sample of size 30 is to take a SRS of 18 women from the 600 women and another SRS of 12 men from the 400 men. )

c. Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and scattered for it to be practical to make a list of the entire population from which to draw an SRS. For instance, when the a polling organization samples US voters, they do not do an SRS. Since voter lists are compiled by counties, they might first do a sample of the counties and then sample within the selected counties. This illustrates two stages. In some instances, they might use even more stages. At each stage, they might do a stratified random sample on sex, race, income level, or any other useful variable on which they could get information before sampling.

2. Sampling in qualitative research: It is done by using research purpose-based sampling technique or purposive sampling. To get the purpose of qualitative research, some criteria are made to make the sample obtained in line with the purpose of the research. It is usually called criteria-based sampling. Purposive sampling = criteria-based sampling = theoretical-based sampling. It is called theoretical-based sampling, because to set purpose-based criteria, researcher uses some theory. In linguistics, things usually used to determine criteria are: form, function, meaning of linguistic units and their context use in ‘the focus-determined boundary’.

VI. DATA VALIDITY 1. Ways to get data validity Validity: the condition of being able to measure what to measure. Valid: something that can measure what to measure. Types of validity: 1. External Validity External validity is about generalization: To what extent can an effect in research, be generalized to populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables? External validity is usually split into two distinct types, population validity and ecological validity and they are both essential elements in judging the strength of an experimental design. 2. Internal Validity Internal validity is a measure which ensures that a researcher's experiment design closely follows the principle of cause and effect. “Could there be an alternative cause, or causes, that explain my observations and results? ” 3. Test Validity Test validity is an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results.

4. Criterion Validity assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. Concurrent validity measures the test against a benchmark test and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity. Predictive validity is a measure of how well a test predicts abilities. It involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future. 5. Content Validity Content validity is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. 6. Construct Validity Construct validity defines how well a test or experiment measures up to its claims. A test designed to measure depression must only measure that particular construct, not closely related ideals such as anxiety or stress. Convergent validity tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related. Discriminant validity tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship. (also referred to as divergent validity) 7. Face Validity Face validity is a measure of how representative a research project is ‘at face value, ' and whether it appears to be a good project.

The aim of data validity: to get data trustworthiness. Qualitative research checks its data validity by using triangulation. Basically, there are 4 triangulations: 1. data source, 2. method, 3. theory, and 4. researcher. Data source triangulation: providing several different data sources. In basic, data sources can be obtained from: events, participants, documents, sites, etc.

2. Data collecting technique a. Observation: 1. non-participant, and 2. participant Non-participant observation: an observation technique that shows distance between researcher and researched. A researcher can do it directly or indirectly by using (for example) camera, video recorder, etc. Participant observation: direct observation in which a researcher involved him/herself in the events he/she observed. In both non-participant and participant observation, a researcher can further collect the data by recording, or note taking.

b. Interview: 1. structured, and 2. in-depth. Structured interview: questions have been composed before based on data obtained from observation, content analysis, questionnaire, etc. Structured interview can be done directly to the interviewee, and by mail (email). Structured interview done by mail (email) is called: in -absentia structured interview. In-depth interview: There has been interview guide consisting of questions or comments provided before. The questions tend to be general. This interview guide is to initiate questions in order to be focus to the research topic. In this in-depth interview, the researcher must dig information as deeply and much as known by informant. It can make a question modified, elaborated, intensified, and extensified. Here the researcher must make the informant happy with the way to question.

VII. METHODS IN DATA ANALYSIS A. Identity method: a method of which its thing to decide is not in the language itself. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It can be sub-classified into: The key deciding factor: Methods: (Alat penentu) Referential Speech organ Articulatory phonetics Other languages Translational Alphabet Ortographics/transliterational Speaker Pragmatics B. Distributional method: a method of which its thing to decide is in the language itself.

1. Referential identity method: the key deciding factor is the fact/the reality referred by the linguistic unit of a language system itself. For example: means arrow; A is the first (capital) letter of Latin alphabetic system. 2. Articulatory phonetics identity method: the key deciding factor is the speech organ producing the language sounds. For example: /b/ is a bilabial, voiced, plosive sound. 3. Translational identity method: the key deciding factor is its equivalent in another language. For example: buku ( in Indonesian) means book (in English). 4. Ortographic identity method: the key deciding factor is the alphabetic system in another language. For example: /�/ (in Arabic letter) means /q/ (in Latin letter) 5. Pragmatic identity method: the key deciding factor is the intention of the speaker. For example: If you say “Please open the door”, then the person to whom your statement is addressed does what the message means.

Techniques in identity method: 1. Basic technique: Dividing-key factors technique (Teknik pilah unsur penentu). Its tool to divide is ‘competence-in-dividing’ (daya pilah yang bersifat mental). Depending on key factor to decide, it can be classified into: a. referential competence-in-dividing: the ability of our mental to differentiate one referent/object to which a linguistic unit is addressed to another one. For example: object/referent can linguistically be categorized into: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc. b. articulatory phonetic competence-in-dividing: the ability of our mental to differentiate the way to produce a speech sound to other ones.

c. translational competence-in-dividing; the ability of our mental to identify the equivalent of a lexical unit to another one. For example: equivalent (in English) means padanan (in Indonesian) while equivalence (in English) means kesepadanan (in Indonesian). d. ortographical competence-in-dividing: the ability of our mental to match the identity of letters (in an alphabetic system) to their equivalents (in another alphabetic system). e. pragmatic competence-in-dividing: the ability of our mental to understand the meaning of someone’s intention. For example: when you saw your friend doing self-fan in a room, you then opened the window or turned on the air conditioner.

2. Continuing technique: a. Equalizing technique (teknik hubung banding menyamakan) , b. Differentiating technique (teknik hubung banding membedakan), c. Equalizing the main points technique (teknik hubung banding menyamakan hal pokok). Its key factor to decide: a. Competence in equalizing, b. Competence in differentiating, c. Competence in equalizing the main points.

Techniques in distributional method: 1. Deletion (pelesapan): the way to delete a linguistic unit to test the degree of meaningfulness and well-formedness. For example: They start working early every day. The serial verb: start working can be deleted either one. Hence it makes the sentence says: They start early every day, and They work early every day. 2. Substitution (penggantian): the way to substitute a linguistic unit with another one to test the degree of meaningfulness and wellformedness. For example: We must be on time tomorrow. We is substitutable with: I and you

3. Expansion/extension (perluasan): the way to expand a linguistic unit priorly or posteriorly to test the degree of meaningfulness and wellformedness. For example: a. Anak yang tekun dan cerdas, si A, adalah mahasiswa sastra Inggris. b. Si A, anak yang tekun dan cerdas, adalah mahasiswa sastra Inggris. c. Dia dengan cerdasnya menjawab pertanyaan sulit tersebut. d. Dia menjawab dengan cerdasnya pertanyaan sulit tersebut. 4. Insertion (penyisipan): the way to insert a linguistic unit in the linguistic unit itself to test the degree of meaningfulness and well-formedness. For example: Jari-jarinya terawat dengan sehatnya. Jari-jemarinya terawat dengan sehatnya.

5. Permutation (pembalikan): the way to change the structure of linguistic unit (for example a sentence) to test the degree of meaningfulness and well-formedness. For example: 1. Cooking is their future obsession. 2. Their future obsessions is cooking. 6. Form change (ubah ujud): paraphrase & non-paraphrase. Paraphrase: an academic writing strategy to reformulate other people’s ideas in one’s sentences without changing the original meaning in relatively the same length with the original. Non-paraphrase: an academic writing strategy to reformulate other people’ s ideas in one’s sentence(s) in usually and relatively short version. For example: a summary version of a text.

7. Repetition (pengulangan): the way to repeat a linguistic unit to test the degree of meaningfulness and well-formedness. For example: Dia akan menghadapi ujian tengah semester pekan depan. Dia sadar sepenuhnya bahwa ujian merupakan salah satu tahap yang harus dia lalui untuk mengukur capaian pengetahuan yang telah dia kaji selama ini. Pertanggungjawaban moral dia kepada orang tua dia dapat diwujudkan dengan nilai-nilai yang unggul. Kesadaran dia menjadikan dia belajar dengan betul. Harapan dia nanti saat ujian dia dapat menjawab semua soal ujian dengan benar dan dengan betul. Kebenaran jawaban mengacu kepada isi jawaban, kebetulan jawaban mengacu kepada cara dia menjawab soal-soal ujian. HAPPY STUDYING THANK YOU