Lexical Semantics An Introduction Boris Iomdin Russian Language
Lexical Semantics. An Introduction Boris Iomdin Russian Language Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences iomdin@ruslang. ru
Lecture 5. Plan Sentence and utterance Proposition and judgment Propositional attitudes (modal frames) Dictum and modus Types of questions Types of anomalous sentences Presupposition and assertion Communicative structure Presuppositions and modal frames in explications
De Saussure: language and speech Human language (system of signs that express ideas) may be divided into 2 components: Langue (the abstract system of language) Parole (individual acts of speech using this system).
Sense and meaning Frege: Sinn / Bedeutung Sense is more abstract, meaning (=reference) is linked to a certain referent the capital of Czechoslovakia: clear sense, but no meaning
Sentence and utterance Sentences are units of language (langue) and have a sense Utterances are units of speech (parole) and have a meaning The sentence sense is an abstract entity, a property of the language itself The utterance meaning is a meaning that the Hearers assign to it
Proposition and judgment A judgment (assertion) is an affirmative statement: A 6 -year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon. A proposition is the content of various utterances: A 6 -year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon! Did a 6 -year-old boy ascend to the skies aboard a balloon? The 6 -year-old boy did not ascend to the skies aboard a balloon. It was the 6 -year-old boy who ascended to the skies aboard a balloon. The boy who ascended to the skies aboard a balloon was six years old. …
Propositional attitude The sense of a sentence may contain an objective constant (proposition) and a subjective variable (propositional attitude ≈ modal frame) A propositional attitude is a mental state connecting the speaker to his proposition Many types of propositional attitudes: Knowing Believing Saying Desiring …
Dictum and modus Ch. Bally, Le language et la vie, 1925 Dictum: what is said Modus: how this is said Dictum: This is a dull lecture. Modi: I think that this is a dull lecture. I believe that this is a dull lecture. I know that this is a dull lecture. I hope that this is a dull lecture. I doubt that this is a dull lecture. It must be a dull lecture. …
Types of questions (Bally) Interrogation dictale totale: What’s happening? – A lecture on semantics. Interrogation dictale partielle: Where’s the lecture? – It’s in room S 8. Interrogation modale totale: Is the lecture happening? – Yes. / No. / Probably. Interrogation modale partielle: Is this a lecture on semantics? – Yes. / No. / Probably.
Total modal questions Is everything OK? – Yes. / *No. / No, my car broke. Are you paying in crowns? – Yes. / *No. / No, in euros. Does your son have black hair? – Yes. / *No. / No, red. Do I look OK? – Yes. / *No. /No, your hair’s tousled. Has anyone called me? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, your son. Any news? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, the lecture’s cancelled. Do you have a dream? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, I want to be an astronaut.
Types of anomalies This are a lectures dull. Charles University is situated in Moscow. The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague. Mary’s husband is a bachelor. Mary’s husband is married. Mary’s husband is rainy. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Although Mary is 48, she already has 2 children.
Presupposition is a component of an utterance which, if it is false, makes the whole utterance anomalous. The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague. Presupposition: Czechoslovakia exists and has a capital. He knows that Charles University is in Prague. He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague. He is surprised that Charles University is in Prague. Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague. Open the door! Presupposition: the door is closed.
Presupposition and negation He knows that Charles University is in Prague. He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague. *He knows that Charles University is in Moscow. *He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Moscow. Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague. He thinks that Charles University is in Prague. He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Prague. He thinks that Charles University is in Moscow. He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Moscow. No presupposition.
Presupposition and assertion Mary is John’s daughter. Assertion: John is Mary’s father. Presupposition: Mary is a girl. Mary isn’t John’s daughter. Assertion: John isn’t Mary’s father. Presupposition: Mary is a girl. *Peter is John’s daughter. Assertion: John is Peter’s father. Presupposition: Peter is a girl.
Communicative structure V. Mathesius. O tak zvaném aktuálním členění větném // Cěstina a obecný jazykozpyt. Praha, 1947 Actual analysis of sentences: theme (T) and rheme (R) Petr (T) viděl Pavla (R). – Koho viděl Petr? ‘Peter (T) saw Paul (R). – Whom did Peter see? ’ Pavla (T) viděl Petr (R). – Kdo viděl Pavla? ‘Peter (R) saw Paul (T). – Who saw Paul? ’
Theme (topic) the part of a sentence that the whole sentence is about In free word order languages (Russian, Czech, …), the topic usually comes first: (Chto delaet mal’chik? ) – Mal’chik (T) bezhit (R). ‘(What does the boy do? ) – The boy (T) is running (R). ’ (Kto aeto bezhit? ) – Bezhit (T) mal’chik (R). ‘(Who is running? ) – A boy (R) is running (T). ’ In Japanese, the topic tends to be marked: uindoozu wa (T) sugoi koutypu da si (R) ‘ As for Windows (T), it is terribly successful (R). ’
Rheme (focus, comment) In some languages, special constructions can mark the rheme: It is Peter who saw Paul. It is Paul whom Peter saw. C’est Pierre qui a vu Paul. C’est Paul que Pierre a vu. The answer to a partial dictal question is generally the rheme: Where’s the lecture? – It’s (T) in room S 8 (R).
Rheme and exhaustive listing ? German is spoken in Austria ? Englishmen live in Essex German is spoken in Germany In Austria, German is spoken P. Sgall, E. Hajičová, J. Panevová, J. Mey, The meaning of the sentence in its semantic and pragmatic aspects, 1986
Given and new Given (old) is the information that the Speaker believes to be known to the Hearer and active in his mind at the moment of the utterance. New is the information that the Speaker believes to be unknown to the Hearer or absent in his mind before the utterance. At the lecture on semantics (T, G) I fell asleep (R, N). I entered Room S 8. A lecture on semantics (T, New) was just starting (R) in the room (Given). English language has articles. French (T, New) has them, too (R, Given).
Modal frames in explications X managed to do P ‘X did P’ [assertion] ‘The speaker thought that X would fail to do P because P is difficult for X’ [modal frame] Even X did P ‘X did P; some others also did P’ [assertion] ‘The speaker did not expect that X would do P’ [modal frame] Only X did P ‘X did P; no one else did P’ [assertion] ‘The speaker expected that someone else would also do P’
Presuppositions in explications X found 1 P ‘Before T, X was searching for P’ [presupposition] ‘At T, X determined the place where P was’ [assertion] I found my watch ‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition] ‘I determined where my watch was’ [assertion] I did not find my watch ‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition] ‘I did not determine where my watch was’ [assertion]
Presuppositions in explications X found 2 P ‘X unexpectedly saw P and took it’ [assertion] I found a watch at the street I did not find a watch at the street
Presuppositions in explications X vstretil 1 Y v Z ‘X met Y in Z’ ‘Y arrived to Z’ [presupposition] ‘X came to Z; after that, X and Y were together for some time’ [assertion] Ja vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I met my friend at the station’ ‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition] ‘I came to the station’ [assertion] Ja ne vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I did not meet my friend…’ ‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition] ‘I did not come to the station’ [assertion]
Presuppositions in explications X vstretil 2 Y ‘X came across Y’ [assertion] Ja vstretil druga na ulice ‘I came across my friend at the street’ Ja ne vstretil druga na ulice ‘I did not come across my friend at the street’
Properties of presuppositions Presuppositions are impenetrable not only for the negation, but also for other kinds of lexical items: quantifiers, modal verbs, estimates, etc. He rarely finds what he loses ≠ ‘he rarely searches’ He cannot find what he lost ≠ ‘he cannot search’
Thematic and rhematic words Few is mostly the rheme: Few students (R) came to the lecture (T). Na lekciju prishlo (T) malo studentov (R). A few can be theme: A few students (T) came later (R). Neskol’ko studentov (T) prishlo pozzhe (R). Once upon a time is mostly theme: Once upon a time (T), there was a king (R). *There king was there (T) once upon a time (R).
Two meanings of alone X does P alone 1 ‘X does P; one could expect that someone else would do P simultaneously or together with X; no one else does P’ Living alone [T] is difficult [R]. He stands there [T] all alone [R]. X alone 2 does P ‘X does P; there is no one else that does P’: only rhematic! He alone [R] knows the truth [T].
Next lecture Theoretical and practical lexicography. Types of dictionaries. Types of information in an explanatory dictionary.
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