Lets talk about how we learn Module 9

Let’s talk about how we learn…… Module 9 and 10 Learning MR. COOPER

THREE KINDS OF LEARNING • Learning – A relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior that results from previous experience with certain stimuli and response • Behavior – Includes both unobservable mental events (thoughts, images) and observable responses (fainting, salivating, vomiting)

THREE KINDS OF LEARNING (CONT’D) • Classical conditioning – A kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by different stimulus • Ivan Pavlov – Conducted experiments with dogs – Pavlov rang a bell before putting food in a dog’s mouth – After numerous trials of pairing the food and bell, the dog salivated to the sound of the bell – This is a conditioned reflex

First a quick video… http: //dsc. discovery. com/tvshows/head-games/videos/pavlovsbell. htm

PROCEDURE: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Step 1: Choosing stimulus and response – Neutral stimulus • some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but doesn’t produce the reflex being tested – Unconditioned stimulus • USC; some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink – Unconditioned response • UCR; unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

PROCEDURE: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CONT’D) • Step 2: Establishing classical conditioning – Neutral stimulus • trial; pair neutral stimulus (bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (food) • neutral stimulus presented first, then short time later, the unconditioned stimulus – Unconditioned stimulus • seconds after the tone begins, present the UCS – Unconditioned response • UCS (food) elicits the UCR (salivation)

PROCEDURE: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CONT’D) • Step 3: Testing for conditioning – Conditioned stimulus • CS; a formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus – Conditioned response • CR; elicited by the conditioned stimulus and similar to, but not identical in size or amount to, the UCS • CR; less salivation than the UCR

OTHER CONDITIONING CONCEPTS • Generalization – Tendency for a stimulus that’s similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response • Discrimination – Occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others

• OTHER CONDITIONING CONCEPTS (CONT’D) Extinction – Refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and, as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response • Spontaneous recovery – Tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished, extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials

Classical Conditioning: Definitions Unconditioned Stimulus (US): a stimulus that has the ability to produce a specified response before conditioning begins. (FOOD) Unconditioned Response (UR): the response produced by the US. (SALIVATION PRODUCED BY FOOD) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus that comes to produce a new response because it is associated with the US. (BELL) Conditioned Response (CR): the response produced by the CS. (SALIVATION PRODUCED BY THE BELL)

Classical Conditioning: The Elements of Associative Learning Ivan Pavlov Conditioning Trial: Salivation Test Trial: Salivation

Classical Conditioning: Basic Principles Acquisition Repeatedly pairing a CS with a US will produce a CR. 1 pairing = presenting the CS and then quickly presenting the US: Extinction After conditioning has taken place, repeatedly presenting the CS without the US will make the CR weaker and eventually make it disappear. X

Classical Conditioning: Additional Principles Spontaneous Recovery Following extinction, the CR reappears at reduced strength if the CS is presented again after a rest period. Stimulus Generalization After a CR has been trained to a CS, that same CR will tend to occur to similar stimuli without further training; The greater the similarity, the stronger the response will be. Conditioning: Test for Generalization:

Classical Conditioning Stimulus Discrimination A subject responds to the CS but not to a similar stimulus because the CS was paired with a US but the similar stimulus was presented without the US. X

ACTIVITY • Find an advertisement in a magazine that seems to associate the product being sold with a particular mood or feeling. For example, car advertisers have used pretty women in their advertisements for years in hopes that men would buy their car because they had associated it with sexiness. Perfume advertisers have used similar ploys. Other ads picture bright, sunny days so that people will associate their products with good feelings. Some advertisers use a different tactic, trying to associate their competitors’ products with negative moods or feelings. Some public service announcements also do this, particularly advertisements that try to discourage people from using drugs.

Examples • http: //www. psychpost. org/2012/02/classicalconditioning-super-bowl-2012. html

• 1. What product was being advertised? ( Neutral Stimulus) • 2. What was the feeling or mood that the advertiser wanted you to associate with the product? (Unconditioned Response) • 3. How was the product paired or associated with the mood? Describe. (Acquisition) • 4. When you see the product at the store, what does the advertiser want you to think of? (Conditioned Response). • 5. Do you think you’ve been influenced by classical conditioning in terms of your product purchases? Why or why not?

Module 10 Operant & Cognitive Approaches

Reinforcement & Punishment • Reinforcement (Strengthens Behavior) – A consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again • Punishment (Weakens Behavior) – A consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again

Reinforcement & Punishment • Reinforcement (Strengthens Behavior) – A consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again – Positive reinforcement • presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again – Negative reinforcement • an aversive stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again

Reinforcement & Punishment • Punishment (Weakens Behavior) – A consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again – Positive punishment • Presenting an aversive stimulus after a response • It decreases the chances that a response will recur – Negative punishment • Removing a reinforcing stimulus after a response • It decreases the chances that a response will recur

Clarification of Terms • Reinforcement vs. Punishment – Reinforcement- Strengthens preceding behavior – Punishment- Weakens preceding behavior • Positive vs. Negative – Positive- adding/ introducing a stimulus – Negative- subtracting/ taking away a stimulus

Examples of Operant Conditioning: Toilet Training • Target behavior – Goal is for Sheryl to urinate in the toilet • Preparation – Give Sheryl a large glass of apple juice • Reinforcers – Each time Sheryl performs the desired behavior, she receives an immediate reinforcer • Shaping – Each time Sheryl performs a step that leads up to using the toilet, she receives reinforcement

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers • Primary reinforcer – Stimulus that is innately satisfying and requires no learning to become pleasurable – Food, water, and sex • Secondary reinforcer – Stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience – Coupons, money, and grades

Consequences Positive Reinforcement (pleasant stimulus applied) Increases the preceding behavior Negative Reinforcement (unpleasant stimulus removed or withheld) Increases the preceding behavior Positive Punishment (unpleasant stimulus applied) Decreases the preceding behavior Negative Punishment (pleasant stimulus removed or withheld) Decreases the preceding behavior

Positive Reinforcement Examples Action Consequence Increase in Behavior A student studies for a test. The student earns and A+ on the test. The student will study again.

Negative Reinforcement Examples Action Consequence Sarah cries The doctor when the decided not to doctor tries to give her a shot. Increase in Behavior Sarah will probably cry to avoid unpleasant situations in the future.

Negative Reinforcement Examples • • • Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache. Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the cold. Giving in to an argument or to a dog’s begging. Fanning oneself to escape the heat. Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad. Smoking in order to relieve anxiety. Following prison rules in order to be released from confinement. Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school. Putting on a car safety belt to stop an irritating buzz. Turning down the volume of a very loud radio. Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain. Saying “uncle” to stop being beaten.

Positive Punishment Examples Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior Joe misses 3 free throws in the basketball game. Joe must run Joe will be less three sprints likely to miss after the game. free throws in the next basketball game.

Negative Punishment Examples Action Consequence Decrease in Behavior A child misbehaves in a restaurant. Her mother will The child will not let her be less likely to order dessert. misbehave in the future.

BE CAREFUL, OPERANT CONDITIONING VARIES WITH THE INDIVIDUAL…

Action Consequences Behavior? Kaitlin talks during class. Teacher reprimands Kaitlin for talking. P 0 SITIVE REINFORCEMENT? Kaitlin really wants attention, she will be more like to talk in class again.

Action Consequences Behavior? Kaitlin talks during class. Teacher reprimands Kaitlin for talking. PUNISHMENT? Kaitlin wants the teacher’s approval, she will be less likely to talk in class again.

Action Consequences Behavior? Kaitlin talks during class. Kaitlin gets a detention. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT? Kaitlin really needs quiet time to do her homework after school.

Action Consequences Behavior? Kaitlin talks during class. Kaitlin gets a detention. PUNISHMENT? Kaitlin has a busy after school schedule and may be kicked off the team.

Classifying Consequences What type of operant conditioning is it?

Negative Punishment • A teenager is put on restriction for keeping the car out too late. • SUBTRACTING a pleasant consequence that DECREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Reinforcement • A child swims three more laps just so he can stop swimming which he hates. • SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Positive Reinforcement • You study and earn an A. • ADDING a pleasant consequences that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Positive Punishment • You party all night and get an F. • ADDING an unpleasant consequence that DECREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Positive Punishment • You are caught speeding and are given a ticket by the highway patrol. • ADDING an unpleasant consequence that DECREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Punishment • A child is acting up in class and is sent to the corner of the room for 10 minutes. • SUBTRACTING a pleasant consequence that DECREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Reinforcement • You clean up your room to avoid your mom’s nagging. • SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Reinforcement • Since you find that aspirin relieves your headaches, you find yourself taking it every time you feel a headache coming on. • SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Reinforcement • Whenever shock is applied to a rat’s feet, it presses a lever to stop it. • SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Negative Reinforcement • A rat has learned to press a lever whenever a light comes on in order to prevent shock from ever being applied. • SUBTRACTING an unpleasant consequence that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Positive Reinforcement • Every time a child says the words “mommy” or “daddy, ” both parents get very excited and pay extra attention to him. Soon the child is saying these words more and more. • ADDING a pleasant consequences that INCREASES the likelihood of the behavior

Classical or Operant? Identification Activity

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning • Goal – The goal of operant conditioning is to increase or decrease the rate of a response – The goal of classical conditioning is to create a new response to a neutral stimulus • Voluntary or involuntary response – In operant conditioning, the individual must first perform a voluntary response before getting a reward – In classical conditioning, physiological reflexes (involuntary responses) are triggered by a stimulus

Decide CC or OC • If the situation is an example of classical conditioning, label the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR. • If the situation is an example of operant conditioning, decide which of the four consequences applies (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment).

Scene One • A very bright (mildly painful) light is turned on a rat. The rat has learned that he can turn off the light by pressing a lever on the other side of his cage. As soon as the light comes on, the rat runs across the room and presses the lever. – Operant Conditioning – Negative Reinforcement

Scene Two • When a mother strokes her infant’s skin, the stroking creates pleasure responses in the baby. After this goes on for many days, that baby begins to show pleasure responses – Classical Conditioning – UCS- stroking – UCR- pleasure – CS- mother – CR- pleasure

Scene Three • A patient in a mental hospital is very disruptive at meal times. She grabs food from the plates of those sitting near her and tries to cram the food in her mouth. Because this behavior of stealing food is very undesirable, a plan is developed whereby every time the patient steals food from other plates, she is immediately taken to a room without food. – Operant Conditioning – Negative Punishment

Scene Four • Johnny has gotten into a habit of yelling “Bye, Mom” and then slamming the door very loudly in his hurry to leave for school in the morning. The door slam causes his mother to flinch. After several days of the procedure, Johnny’s mother begins to flinch at the sound of her son’s words, “Bye, Mom. ” – Classical Conditioning – UCS- door slam – UCR- flinching – CS- “Bye, Mom” – CR- flinching

Scene Five • Imagine you have a friend who keeps the temperature in her home so high that each occasion on which you visit her you find yourself perspiring. The last time you visited her, you noticed that you began to perspire and became uncomfortable as soon as you saw her house (before you even got inside). – Classical Conditioning – UCS- heat – UCR- perspiration – CS- sight of friend’s house – CR- perspiration

Scene Six • Fred leaves his clothes and toys all over his room. It seems that the only time he cleans up his room is when his mother yells at him. When she yells at him, Fred picks up his clothes and puts away his toys. – Operant Conditioning – Negative Reinforcement

Scene Seven • Mr. & Mrs. Jones are having a heated argument that both are finding unpleasant. Mr. Jones gets up and leaves the room, closing the door behind him. This has the effect of terminating the argument. From then on, every time Mrs. Jones raises her voice, Mr. Jones leaves the room. – Operant Conditioning – Negative Reinforcement

Scene Eight • A husband who usually ignores his wife still likes to think of himself as an understanding man. So, whenever his wife complains that her heart condition (which has no medical cause) is giving her pain, he becomes attentive and tries to comfort her. This responsiveness doesn’t seem to help much: her reports of heart trouble just increase. – Operant Conditioning – Positive Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement • Schedule of Reinforcement – A program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer • Continuous reinforcement – Every occurrence of the operant response is reinforced • Partial reinforcement – Responses are reinforced only some of the time

Fixed-Ratio • Reinforcement given after a specific number of correct responses • Required number of correct responses for reinforcement does not change • Example: – Every 4 th correct response is rewarded – Qboba Card

Fixed-Interval • First correct response after a certain amount of time has passed is reinforced • Required amount of time does not change

Variable-Ratio • Reinforcement is given after a certain number of correct responses • Required number of correct responses for reinforcement changes constantly • Example: Slot machines in Las Vegas operate on a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement

Variable Interval • First correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced • Required amount of time changes constantly

Schedules of Reinforcement Activity Identify the Schedule (X 2)

Scene 1 • Kimmy loves to go bowling and get strikes. She may roll the bowling ball three times to get a strike. Sometimes, she only needs to roll the bowling ball once to get a strike. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Sporadic- Variable – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Number of response- Ratio VARIABLE RATIO

Scene 2 • Jacob gets paid $10. 00 for every hours he works. Jacob would like to make more, but no matter how productive he is, he only receives $10. 00 per hour. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Steadily- fixed – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Time- interval FIXED INTERVAL

Scene 3 • Marissa gets praise from her parents every now and then. She never knows when she will get praised. She may have to wait two months, or only a week. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Sporadic- Variable – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Time- interval VARIABLE INTERVAL

Scene 4 • Ervin has figured out that every time he says, “I love you, ” to his girlfriend, his girlfriend kisses him. This inspires Ervin to tell her that he loves her all the time. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Steadily- fixed – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Number of responses- ratio FIXED RATIO

Scene 5 • If Little Amber is good at the store, her dad might give her a lollipop. Sometimes she has to be good on two trips to the store, and sometimes only one trip to receive her lollipop. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Sporadic- variable – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Number of responses- ratio VARIABLE RATIO

Scene 6 • Paulie pledges to read two books every month. For each month he accomplishes his task, he receives points that he can redeem for prizes. – Steady or sporadic reinforcement? • Steadily- fixed – Reinforced contingent on time or number of responses? • Time- interval FIXED INTERVAL

Most Effective? Which type of schedule do you think is the most effective?

Operant Conditioning Concepts • Generalization – An animal or person emits the same response to similar stimuli – Young child generalizes the word “Daddy” to all males • Discrimination – A response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli – Parents reinforce the child saying “Daddy” in the presence of their real father, but do not reinforce the child when she calls strangers “Daddy” • Extinction – Reduction in an operant response when it is no longer followed by a reinforcer • Spontaneous recovery – Temporary recovery in the rate of responding

Power of Immediate Reinforcement Intrapersonal Activity 21 3

Cognitive Learning • Cognitive learning involves mental processes such as attention & memory • Cognitive map – Mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features • Social cognitive learning – Results from watching, imitating, and modeling – Does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 4 Processes Albert Bandura: Identified four required factors for observational learning • Attention – Observer must pay attention to what the model says or does • Memory – Observer must remember the information so that it can be retrieved and used later • Imitation – Observer must be able to use the remembered information to guide his/her own actions and imitate the model’s behavior • Motivation – Observer must have some reason or incentive to imitate the model’s behavior

Bandura’s Famous Bobo Doll Experiment • Examined the influence of observational learning on aggressiveness in children • All three groups viewed a film of an adult punching and verbally abusing a ‘Bobo Doll’ – Group One: Adult was rewarded – Group Two: Adult was punished – Group Three: No consequences for the adult • After the film, the children played in a room with toys (including a Bobo doll • Adult rewarded group was most aggressive • This showed that operant conditioning can take place through observation alone!!! • Applications?

Latent Learning • Learning that is not revealed in performance immediately • Revealed later when the behavior is reinforced – Panic on test? • Learning-performance distinction- learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance

Tolman Rat Study – Tolman Rat Study: To prove that learning can be latent (hidden), Tolman had three groups of rats run through mazes for 10 days • Group One: Rewarded for running through maze to end • Group Two: Un-rewarded • Group Three: Un-rewarded for 10 days/rewarded on the 11 th – The rats in group one (rewarded) learned to run through the maze with few errors – The rats in groups two and three (no reward) did not run through the maze with ease – On day 11, Tolman began rewarding Group Two. Once rewarded, these rats instantly became as efficient as the group that had been rewarded all along!

Social Cognitive Learning: Decreases the Fear of Snakes • Subjects with an intense fear of snakes were chosen for participation • After watching a model handle a 4 -foot snake, one group was invited to move closer to the snake • Subjects were invited to touch the snake • The group who watched the live model scored an average of 27 on the 29 -step approach scale Source: Bar graph data from “Relative Efficacy of Desensitization and Modeling Approaches for Inducing Behavior, Affective and Attitudinal Changes” by A. Bandura, E. B. Blanchard & B. Ritter, 1969, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 173 -179.

Quick Lab: Learning to Dance • Modeling is a type of observational learning that we use to learn many different activities. Do you think you can use modeling to teach others to dance? ? ? • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=qd 6 UI 6 w EIs. U&feature=kp

Procedure • 1) Create a set of dance steps to go along with some selected music. (Must be appropriate) Practice the dance steps and their sequence. • 2) Try to teach another group the dance steps you created by modeling them. Have one member of your group demonstrate the steps. Have the rest of your group observe the learners and take notes on their actions. Did they watch carefully? Did they ask questions or ask to see the steps repeated? ? • 3) Ask the other group to perform the dance steps you have modeled for them, and take notes on your observations. Were all the steps reproduced in the manner they were presented?

Analysis • 1) Draw some conclusions about modeling from your before and after observational notes. How effective was modeling in teaching the other group your dance steps? • 2) Have a discussion with the other group about how they think they learned the steps and patterns. How did observational learning play a role? • 3) How was the best dancer? ?