LESSON 1 THE ENLIGHTENMENT AGE OF REASON AND

LESSON 1: THE ENLIGHTENMENT, AGE OF REASON, AND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION HIS 1112 Dr. Dee Mc. Kinney, 2018 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non. Commercial 4. 0 International License.

Learning Objectives • Describe the rise of modern science and the predominance of a • • scientific world view, and how humanity fit into this new view of the universe. Explain the ideologies of Hobbes, Locke, Bacon, Descartes, Kepler, and Newton, and how they heralded both a scientific view of the world and a scientific method for establishing and testing knowledge. Detail European expansion into other parts of the world and explain how these interactions changed the perspective of western civilization. Outline the concept of natural law and natural rights, and how they affected human ideas about culture, government, and economics. Consider the effects of the Enlightenment on later political events of the European nations, such as the rise of liberalism and the decline of “divine right” rule.

Introduction • Review of science before 16 th century • Romans had advanced building techniques and some medicine. • No strong concept of empiricism. • Reliance on observation, data, evidence. • Ibn al-Haytham: astronomy, gravity, optics in 10 th century. • Ibn-Sina (aka Avicenna): Wrote Canons of Medicine. • Roger Bacon and inductive reasoning (from specific to general).

The Scientific Revolution • Thus, science around 1600: • Based on ancient and medieval ideas. • Notions about the universe based on Aristotelian principles. • Belief in a static earth at the center of the universe. • Following Aristotle: the sublunar world was made up of four imperfect, changing elements: fire, air, water, and earth.

The Scientific Revolution • Alchemy • Proto-science (has elements of chemistry, but also adds in mythology and folklore). • One goal was to change 'base' metals (like lead) into gold. • Another was to concoct an elixir of life (philosopher's stone). • Yes, like Harry Potter!

The Scientific Revolution The Copernican Hypothesis • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473– 1543) overturned medieval view of the universe. • Postulated that the earth revolved around the sun, sun was the center of the universe. • Heliocentric View vs. Geocentric • Departure from the medieval view • Created serious misgivings among traditional Christians, especially Protestants.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) • See these pages and images from the original work when it was on display at the Glasgow University Library: • De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

The Scientific Revolution • Tycho Brahe (1546– 1601) built an observatory and collected data. • Johannes Kepler (1571– 1630) used Brahe’s observations to formulate laws of planetary motion. • Galileo Galilei (1564– 1642) challenged Aristotelian ideas about terrestrial motion. • His observations supported the Copernican cosmology. • Galileo’s findings brought him into conflict with the Catholic church, which forced him to recant. • Renee Descartes: provided a modern understanding of them, including notation and practical applications • Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) system, aka analytic geometry • He joined geometry with algebra—really important!

The Scientific Revolution Newton’s Synthesis = Calculus • Isaac Newton (1642– 1727) integrated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo. • He formulated a set of mathematical principles to explain motion and mechanics, plus measure area under a curve (as opposed to a circle or square). • However, he didn’t do this alone….

The Scientific Revolution • Newton and Leibniz • The main idea: Leibniz (who wrote the notation) and Newton (who outlined the key principles) independently documented the fundamental theorems of calculus • Who came up with calculus first, Leibniz or Newton? • Most historians, myself included, think they developed calculus independently, but along parallel lines • Each had a slightly different focus

The Scientific Revolution • Pascal and High-Stakes Games • Pascal (1623 -1662) was instrumental in developing theories of number sets (1, 3, 5, 7, 9). • Worked out many of the rules for probability analysis. • He loved games of chance (dice), like throwing dice. • Good thing he never went to Las Vegas.

The Scientific Revolution • Antonj van Leeuwenhoek • Protozoans and sperm. • Microscopes • Small, hand-held lenses, often set into ornate instruments like those used by jewelers. • Greatly advanced the field of microbiology. • Who invented the microscope?

The Scientific Revolution Consequences • The rise of modern science produced an international scientific community. • The scientific method challenged the primacy of tradition. • The scientific revolution had little immediate impact on the European economy. • Did impact exploration.

The Scientific Revolution Why did it happen? Was it a “revolution”? • What is a revolution (in the intellectual sense)? • A movement led by leaders in thinking that somehow changes how the majority of people view the given issue. • So, you answer this question…yes or no, back up your argument with evidence.

The Enlightenment • Sparked by popular seventeenth-century scientific achievements. • Grew slowly over the course of the eighteenth century. • Conflict between science and religion bred skepticism and uncertainty. • Increased familiarity with non-European lands and cultures also contributed to uncertainty. • Uncertainty led to desire for certainty through reason. • In contrast to Descartes, John Locke stressed that all ideas are derived from experience.

The Enlightenment • John Locke (1632 -1704) • Argued a government could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a social contract • Must protect the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. • If such consent was not given, citizens had a right of rebellion. • Consider this in light of the American Revolution against Britain. • Denis Diderot • Edited the Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts

The Enlightenment The Philosophes • Philosophe refers to eighteenth-century philosophers who were committed to spreading Enlightenment thought to the educated public. • The philosophes had to contend with statesponsored censorship. • Montesquieu (1689– 1755) argued that despotism could only be avoided if political power was divided among a variety of groups.

The Enlightenment • Voltaire (1694– 1778) was the most famous of the philosophes. • Admired English society and government. • Believed in enlightened monarchy. • He challenged the Catholic church at almost every opportunity. • See Voltaire’s Candide exhibit from the New York Public Library.

The Enlightenment • David Hume (1711– 1776) built on John Locke’s principles to produce a skeptical philosophy, critical of Enlightenment faith in reason. • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712– 1778) also questioned the limits of reason. • He argued that civilization was the enemy of true freedom. • His Social Contract was based on two fundamental ideas: the general will and popular sovereignty.

The Enlightenment Effects on public life • The market for books increased dramatically in the eighteenth century. • The eighteenth-century public read more books on more subjects. • The salon developed as a way to get around censorship laws. • Salons were centers of debate and discussion. • Salons gave the elite women who ran them unprecedented influence on artistic taste. • Visit a salon of the philosophes.

The Enlightenment Effects on public life • The growth in literacy between 1600 and 1800 led to an increase in popular reading. • The most popular form of literature was the chapbook, many of which dealt with religious subjects. • Entertaining stories and practical guides were two other forms of popular literature. • Despite the efforts of male physicians to discredit them, midwives retained most of their practice, in part by receiving better training.

The Enlightenment Effects on public life • The majority of ordinary men and women remained committed to Christianity. • Leisure and recreation usually took place in groups. • Towns and cities offered a wide range of entertainments. • The century saw a growing split between elite and popular culture.

The Enlightenment Effects on Politics: Absolutism in Prussia • Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740– 1786) • One of the largest states of the old Holy Roman Empire. • Separated his attachment to new ideas from his traditional views of international politics. • The Seven Years’ War caused him to reconsider the relation between new ideas and a strong state. • Frederick was only willing to go so far. • Prussia remained more absolutist. • He never challenged the basic structure of his society nor the prevailing anti-Semitism. • This would later be detrimental in the German states after unification in 1871.

The Enlightenment Effects on Politics: Absolutism in Russia • Catherine the Great (1762– 1796) • Attempted to rule in an enlightened manner, while remaining committed to absolute monarchy. • She had three goals: • Bring Western culture to Russia • Reform domestic laws and institutions • Expand Russia’s territory. • While she made some reforms, Russia still suffered from poor infrastructure and a sharp divide among social classes.

The Enlightenment Effects on Politics: Absolutism in Austria • The Austrian Habsburgs were part of the Holy Roman Empire, but exercised much autonomy. • Maria Theresa (1740– 1780) and her son Joseph II ( 1780– 1790) made strides toward bringing reform to Austria. • Their reforms had three goals: • limit papal political influence in Austria • strengthen the central bureaucracy • improve conditions for the country’s agricultural population. • When Joseph II became ruler in his own right in 1780, he moved quickly to transform his realm. • Joseph II’s successor, Leopold II (1790 – 1792) was forced to cancel Joseph’s radical edicts.

The Enlightenment Effects on Politics: Absolutism in France • After Louis XIV’s death in 1715, citizens rejected his policies. • The Parlement of Paris was reinstated. • In 1768, Louis XV (1715– 1774) appointed René de Maupeou as chancellor and ordered him to abolish Parlement and reassert royal authority. • That didn’t work out. • In an effort to gain popularity, Louis XVI dismissed Maupeou and reinstated Parlement. • The overall effect was a stalemate between the Parlement and the monarchy.

The Enlightenment • End Results • The Enlightenment lessened the ability of the French monarchy to rule in an absolutist fashion. • Seeds of French Revolution. • The eastern absolutists were quite successful at applying reform efforts to their larger goals of state building, probably because they did not face as much internal resistance from the people. • Overall, the Enlightenment “stirred” notions of individual liberties and freedoms to have a say in government. (Well, if you were of a certain class, gender, or ethnicity…)