Lecture Outline n n n Definition of interpersonal

Lecture Outline n n n Definition of interpersonal perception. Object versus person perception. Thinking in interpersonal perception social cognition. n n Heuristics Impression formation. n n Cognitive factors important in ……………. . Stereotyping as an example.

Definition n “. . an active process (or set of processes) through which we seek to know and understand others” (Baron & Byrne, 1997, p 38).

Object vs Person: Similarities n Key components: n n n Selection - focusing on aspect of object or behaviour Organisation - formation of coherent impression of person or object. Inference - attributing characteristics to person or object for which there’s no real evidence.

Object vs Person: Differences n n People behave - behaviour may provide data for making inferences. People interact - one person’s behaviour may influence another’s. n n Social behaviour is partly the product of another’s behaviour towards the self. People perceive and experience. n One person perception may be the influenced by another’s experience of them

Social Cognition n n Social perception organised around social cognitive principles People as thinking organisms (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). n n How we cognitively organised information about our social world How we interpret, analyse, remember, and use information about the social world.

Social Cognition: Assumptions n n n Consistency seekers - cognitive consistency (Festinger, 1957). Naive scientists - inferring unobservable causes from observable behaviour (Attribution). Cognitive misers - limited capacity to interpret all information. n n Heuristics (Kahneman et al, 1982). Motivated tactician - choice of cognitive tactics based on goals, needs (emotion) etc.

Heuristics for interpretation n Availability. n n Judging frequency of event based on number of instances brought to ‘mind’ of that event. Representativeness. n Whether person is an example of a particular stored schema (Stereotyping).

Impression Formation: Questions n n Which cognitive strategies are used to form impression of others? How do we form first impressions of others? How important are first impressions? How do we manage the impressions others form of us?

First Impressions n Asch (1946) n n n Dynamic product of all perceptual information available (including memory) Some information more important than others Some information accessed more than other when making an impression.

Central Traits (Asch, 1946) Stimulus Lists Group 1 Group 2 intelligent skilful industrious warm cold determined practical cautious

Peripheral Traits (Asch, 1946) Stimulus Lists Group 1 Group 2 intelligent skilful industrious polite blunt determined practical cautious

Asch: Evaluation n Certain information more important in forming an impression. n n n Central and peripheral traits (Asch, 1946; Kelley, 1950). The halo effect (Asch, 1946). Does the effect “hold up” for impressions being formed about a real person? n Is actual experience important for the operation of central and peripheral traits?

Impressions in the real world n n n Kelley (1950) Guest lecturer experiment Half participants told that lecturer “cold”, the other half “warm” Then exposed to lecturer DV = impression formed of lecturer after exposure Replicated Asch’s original work

Implicit Personality Theory n n Bruner & Taguiri (1954) Expectation about another based on knowledge derived from central traits Preconceptions held about the totality of the person based on central traits attended to. Role of stereotyping for the formation of implicit personalities.

Impression Formation n n Traits - stable factors associated with that type of person. First impressions. Implicit personality theories. Stereotyping. Attribution processes.

Do First/Last Impressions Count? n n Seriation and social cognition. Primacy vs. recency. Primacy effect - first impressions count more than later ones. Recency effect - greater impact of more recent information on impression formation.

Primacy Effect n Asch (1946) - reverse order experiment. Group 1 Group 2 intelligent industrious impulsive critical stubborn envious stubborn critical impulsive industrious intelligent

Primacy/Recency Effects n n n Luchins (1957) - Personality experiment. Matched subjects on personality. Assigned to 4 groups: n n n description of extrovert (Group 1 - control) description of introvert (Group 2 - control) extrovert first, then introvert (Group 3) introvert first, then extrovert (Group 4) Judged character on introversion / extroversion.

Luchins (1957): Continued n n n Primacy effect when description followed in immediate succession Recency effect when there’s a delay between first and second sets of information about target. Primacy more common recency. n n Information encountered first assimilated. Accommodating new information means changing first impression

Accounts of Primacy/Recency n n n Earlier information is the ‘real’ person. Later information dismissed - it’s not viewed as typical / representative (Luchins, 1957). Attention at a maximum when making initial impressions (Anderson, 1975). Early information affects ‘meaning’ of later information (Asch, 1946) - consistency. What about people’s exiting ideas of others? n Social schemas

Social Schemas n Cognitive structures/ organisational structure of information. n n Stored in memory. Based on past experience. Shorthand summaries of social world. n Allow us to encode and categorise new data Represent: “knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including it’s attributes and relations among those attributes” (Fisk & Taylor, 1991, p. 98) n

Social Schemas n n Schemas influence what to pay attention to Information consistent stored, information inconsistent ignored. Allows us to process information quickly and arrive at an impression swiftly. A “top-down” approach to information processing

Schema Types n Person schemas (Cohen, 1981) n n n Self schemas (Markus, 1977) n n Guide self-related information Role schemas (Fisk & Taylor, 1991) n n Expectations about others Prototypes Behaviours expected in situation Event schemas (Schank & Abelson, 1977) n Scripts for different situations

Stereotypes n n “. . . widely shared assumptions of the personalities, attitudes and behaviour of people based on group membership. . ” (Hogg & Vaughan, 1995, p. 56). “. . . inclination to place a person in categories according to some. . . characteristics. . and then to attribute. . . qualities believed to be typical to members of that category. . . ” (Tagiuri, 1969)

Stereotyping Process n Assign individual to a group - categorise. n n Based on accessible characteristic e. g. gender, race, age. Activate belief that all members of this group behave etc in same way. Infer that individual must posses stereotypical characteristics. Respond to individual on this basis.

Stereotypes - Findings n n n Categorisation according to a few attributes. Stereotypes very slow to change. Acquired at young age. More pronounced when accompanied with tension and conflict. Information that activates a stereotype processed more quickly.