LECTURE 4 RESEARCH METHODS Significance of the Research

LECTURE 4. RESEARCH METHODS

Significance of the Research –Implications to research: how does it inform research area? –Implications to Practice (managers, practitioners, employees, organizations etc) –Implications to Policy (if applicable)—what do your findings tell government, international community, development agencies etc.

Example: E-banking in Rural Banks • The significance of the study can be viewed along three strands: research, practice and policy. Concerning the research significance, this study goes beyond current research on e-banking in rural banks by examining the strategies for implementing and integrating e-banking technologies. Literature on strategic perspective on ebanking in rural banks is arguably non-existent on Ghana and perhaps this spreads to the West-Africa region. • Concerning significance to practice, the study will provide guidelines to other rural banks on the factors which influence e-banking adoption and strategic options to address challenges in managing and sustaining ebanking applications. This will be very helpful to ARP Apex Bank and to rural banks in its network.

• Concerning significance to policy, the study will provide feedback on policies driving the computerization of rural banks which is critical to the operations of financier, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, the government of Ghana and other donors who have interest in supporting ICT integration in rural banks. These contributions to practice and policy will become necessary to the development of more advanced or complex functionalities for rural banks including internet banking and mobile banking.

Research Limitations • Points out the limitations in the research issues which may influence the research • Definitional concepts –what is included and what is not • Scope and Constraints –which respondents will not be involved and, perhaps why • Variables - Which data will not be collected/studied

Example: E-banking in Rural Banks • A sample size of 50 computerized RCBs will be selected out of the 97 based on proximity for ease of data collection and time constraint for the study. The study will not cover the use of electronic channels such as ATM, POS, mobile phone and internet since these channels have not yet been deployed to the banks. It will only focus on the computerization project under the mandate of the ARP Apex Bank. • Also there is a possibility that some of the respondents may not return their questionnaires since it will touch on their financial and operational performance before and after computerization. • The study will focus more on the banks than their customers in assessing the challenges and prospects of the project.

Literature Review as a Process Locate existing reviews and other information in secondary sources; textbooks in the field of study O Identify key terms; identify the most important terms in the problem and then think of other terms that are closely related; Eg. Suppose your research problem is related to teaching styles and student achievement, the key terms then are ‘’teaching style’’ and student achievement’’

• Search indexes for primary sources; read books originally written by author. • Summarise and analyse primary source information; important to write the full reference of the source of information( i. e. the author, year of publication, title of the article and the journal etc. )

Steps in Reviewing Literature • List the needed information relating to variables of interest and their relationships. • List possible sources and location of the information (references). • Search for and retrieve the information Review, record and synthesis the information obtained. Determine in what way the information obtained support or contradict the research questions.

O The search for primary and secondary sources in literature review is made by; O Computer O Mediated online search done by a librarian O Manually. A primary source O A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. O These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event.

Some types of primary sources include: O ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records O CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art O RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings O Examples of primary sources include: O Diary of Anne Frank - Experiences of a Jewish family during WWII O The Constitution of Ghana - Ghanaian History O A journal article reporting NEW research or findings O Weavings and pottery - Native African history

O A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. O Secondary sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them. O Some types of secondary sources include: PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopaedias Examples of secondary sources include: O A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings O A history textbook O A book about the effects of WWI

Write – LR as a process The literature review has its own internal structure. It starts with an • Opening sentence or paragraph; • discusses the literature in a logical and coherent way; and • concludes with a paragraph that relate the literature to the research project.

Structuring the literature review • Opening Paragraph: A few sentences focused on the topic to break the icing… Social networking in workplace O Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes’ report on Social networking and business, stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also found 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). O Somehow businesses have to respond to this growing trend. However, the question is what is the potential risk of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses address the risk?

Structuring the literature review Body: this is where you discuss your sources. • chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time. O Literature demonstrates that the key factors which contribute to unemployment in Africa have tended to change over time. In the late 1990’s researchers argued that inflation and low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). For example a study by (Uche, 2000) on unemployment in the banking industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation affected the turnover of banks which had also had an effect in salary payments. Over 2000 bank employees lost their jobs by the end of 1999.

O On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for start-up initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial ventures and contributed to unemployment or the lack of job opportunities (Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson 2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of start-up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. O In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt, (Salia, 2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment. Other studies in Cote d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone attests to these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern, 2010). O In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-facet perspective. It cannot be reduced to one single factor.

Structuring the literature review Body: this is where you discuss your sources. O Thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the literature review of poverty and disability –Structure of disability • What is disability • Causes of disability –Structure of poverty • Education, employment, income and poverty –The path from poverty to disability –Mitigating poverty in disability • Policies for disabled people • Social/relational support • Capacity development

Structuring the literature review O Body: this is where you discuss your sources. O Thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the literature review of mobiles and micro-trading –Impact of mobiles on micro-trading • What is trading: Trading is about Information –Transaction Costs Theory • Stages of trading • Benefits of mobiles/technology in commerce/trade –Strategic –Relational –Operational • Impact of mobiles –Incremental Effects –Transformational Effects –Production Effects

Structuring the literature review O Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches, experiment. O Method of data collection O Survey vrs Case Study O Experiment O O O Unit of Analysis Individuals Organizational National Global/Cross-country O O Region/Geo. Location • Developing vrs Developed • Country • Rural vrs Urban

Structuring the literature review O Concluding the Literature Review: • summarize the major contributions, evaluating the current position, and pointing out flaws in methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for further study. • What are the main perspectives and methodological approaches adopted in relation to the problem? • What is my point of view in relation to these perspectives and approached? • When you have solid answers to these questions you can be confident that your literature review and your research proposal are in firm ground.

Good and Bad Literature Review

Bad Literature Review Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men and women students reacted differently. Benson and Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent book, The Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long list of difficulties that victims have suffered.

Good Literature Review The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of self-confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt, 1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner, 1990). Adams et al. , (1983) noted that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment.

A literature review IS NOT: • A summary of available materials without any critical description or component: or • An annotated bibliography

Literature Referencing The act of providing evidence for arguments and perspectives presented in literature write up – article, long essay, report and others. 1. References provided within the text or the body of the text 2. Compiled references at the end of the text

References Within Text • In the late 1990’s researchers argued that inflation and low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003; Mensah et al. , 2004). • A comparative study (Kinson 2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of start-up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt, (Salia, 2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment.

Referencing List • Boakye, A. N. (2013). Factors associated with the use of emerging technologies in teaching and research in Ghanaian public universities. AJET Journal (2013): 3569. • Boateng, R. (2011). Mobile Phones and Micro-Trading Activities – Conceptualizing The Link, Info: The Journal for Policy, Regulation and Strategy, Volume 13 Number 5, pp. 48 -62. • De Vaus, D. (2001). Research Design in Social Research, Sage Publications, London

Types of Referencing O Popular 1. Harvard Style 2. APA Style [ American Psychological Association] O Other types • Chicago Manual of Style • AMA (American Medical Association) • CSE (Council of Science Editors) O For a list of all referencing styles • http: //tinyurl. com/listofrefstyle

O Popular Styles for Students • For Harvard style. Please refer to: –http: //tinyurl. com/harvardrefstyle • For APA style. Please refer to: –http: //tinyurl. com/aparefstyle

APA STYLE (American Psychological Association) Book O Harrison, B. K. (1997). Mummy's curse in the Interlake: Who would have thought? Toronto: Mc. Graw-Hill. O Agar, J. (1997). The mole people (3 rd ed. ). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Journal O Harrison, B. K. (2003). Mummy's curses: Methods of identifying, tracking, and categorizing. The Interlake Egyptologist, 7(8), 17 -22.

Magazine O Miller, B. (2002, October 10). Had enough of mosquitoes? Maclean's, pp. 21 -28. O Stern, B. (1997, March). Rising to the challenge. Canadian Living, pp. 68 -71 Newspaper O Bronson, C. (2003, September 23). Oops, she's at it again. The Winnipeg Free Press, p. C 3. O Oops, she's at it again. (2003, September 23). The Winnipeg Free Press, p. C 3.

Website Wallace, A. (2002). The new cost of the old economy. Retrieved December 12, 2003, from http: //www. quarryinstitute. org/cost

Referencing List • Boakye, A. N. (2013). Factors associated with the use of emerging technologies in teaching and research in Ghanaian public universities. AJET Journal (2013): 3569. • Boateng, R. (2011). Mobile Phones and Micro-Trading Activities – Conceptualizing The Link, Info: The Journal for Policy, Regulation and Strategy, Volume 13 Number 5, pp. 48 -62. • De Vaus, D. (2001). Research Design in Social Research, Sage Publications, London

To learn More and Read More • For Harvard style. Please refer to: – http: //tinyurl. com/harvardrefstyle • For APA style. Please refer to: –http: //tinyurl. com/aparefstyle

Goals of Literature Review

O References • Babbie, E. R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242 • Babbie, E. R. (2005) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. • Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http: //www. library. arizona. edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012] • Neuman, W. L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379 • Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http: //www. literaturereviewof. com/identifyinggaps[February 2012]

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