Lecture 12 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW Nazaruddin Sinaga Laboratorium Efisiensi

Lecture 12 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW Nazaruddin Sinaga Laboratorium Efisiensi dan Konservasi Energi Universitas Diponegoro

Note to Instructors These slides were developed 1, during the spring semester 2005, as a teaching aid for the undergraduate Fluid Mechanics course (ME 33: Fluid Flow) in the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering at Penn State University. This course had two sections, one taught by myself and one taught by Prof. John Cimbala. While we gave common homework and exams, we independently developed lecture notes. This was also the first semester that Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications was used at PSU. My section had 93 students and was held in a classroom with a computer, projector, and blackboard. While slides have been developed for each chapter of Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, I used a combination of blackboard and electronic presentation. In the student evaluations of my course, there were both positive and negative comments on the use of electronic presentation. Therefore, these slides should only be integrated into your lectures with careful consideration of your teaching style and course objectives. Eric Paterson Penn State, University Park August 2005 1 This Chapter was not covered in our class. These slides have been developed at the request of Mc. Graw-Hill ME 33 : Fluid Flow 2 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Objectives Appreciate the consequences of compressibility in gas flows Understand why a nozzle must have a diverging section to accelerate a gas to supersonic speeds Predict the occurrence of shocks and calculate property changes across a shock wave Understand the effects of friction and heat transfer on compressible flows ME 33 : Fluid Flow 3 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties Recall definition of enthalpy which is the sum of internal energy u and flow energy P/ For high-speed flows, enthalpy and kinetic energy are combined into stagnation enthalpy h 0 ME 33 : Fluid Flow 4 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties Steady adiabatic flow through duct with no shaft/electrical work and no change in elevation and potential energy Therefore, stagnation enthalpy remains constant during steady-flow process ME 33 : Fluid Flow 5 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (V 2 = 0) Therefore, h 0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically. During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy. Properties at this point are called stagnation properties (which are identified by subscript 0) ME 33 : Fluid Flow 6 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties If the process is also reversible, the stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state. Stagnation enthalpy is the same for isentropic and actual stagnation states Actual stagnation pressure P 0, act is lower than P 0 due to increase in entropy s as a result of fluid friction. Nonetheless, stagnation processes are often approximated to be isentropic, and isentropic properties are referred to as stagnation properties ME 33 : Fluid Flow 7 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties For an ideal gas, h = Cp. T, which allows the h 0 to be rewritten T 0 is the stagnation temperature. It represents the temperature of an ideal gas attains when it is brought to rest adiabatically. V 2/2 Cp corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called the dynamic temperature For ideal gas with constant specific heats, stagnation pressure and density can be expressed as ME 33 : Fluid Flow 8 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Stagnation Properties When using stagnation enthalpies, there is no need to explicitly use kinetic energy in the energy balance. Where h 01 and h 02 are stagnation enthalpies at states 1 and 2. If the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats ME 33 : Fluid Flow 9 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Important parameter in compressible flow is the speed of sound. Speed at which infinitesimally small pressure wave travels Consider a duct with a moving piston Creates a sonic wave moving to the right Fluid to left of wave front experiences incremental change in properties Fluid to right of wave front maintains original properties ME 33 : Fluid Flow 10 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Construct CV that encloses wave front and moves with it Mass balance cancel ME 33 : Fluid Flow 11 Neglect H. O. T. Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Continuity equation: Momentum equation: ME 33 : Fluid Flow 12 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

ME 33 : Fluid Flow 13 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

ME 33 : Fluid Flow 14 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Energy balance ein = eout cancel ME 33 : Fluid Flow 15 cancel Neglect H. O. T. Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

ME 33 : Fluid Flow 16 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Using thermodynamic relation Combing this with mass and energy conservation gives For an ideal gas ME 33 : Fluid Flow 17 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Since R is constant k is only a function of T Speed of sound is only a function of temperature ME 33 : Fluid Flow 18 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Speed of Sound and Mach Number Second important parameter is the Mach number Ma Ratio of fluid velocity to the speed of sound Ma < 1 : Subsonic Flow regimes classified in terms of Ma Ma = 1 : Sonic Ma > 1 : Supersonic Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic Ma 1 : Transonic ME 33 : Fluid Flow 19 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow For flow through nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages, flow quantities vary primarily in the flow direction Can be approximated as 1 D isentropic flow Consider example of Converging-Diverging Duct ME 33 : Fluid Flow 20 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Example 12 -3 illustrates Ma = 1 at the location of the smallest flow area, called the throat Velocity continues to increase past the throat, and is due to decrease in density Area decreases, and then increases. Known as a converging - diverging nozzle. Used to accelerate gases to supersonic speeds. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 21 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area Relationship between V, , and A are complex Derive relationship using continuity, energy, speed of sound equations Continuity Differentiate and divide by mass flow rate ( AV) ME 33 : Fluid Flow 22 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area Derived relation (on image at left) is the differential form of Bernoulli’s equation. Combining this with result from continuity gives Using thermodynamic relations and rearranging ME 33 : Fluid Flow 23 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area This is an important relationship For Ma < 1, (1 - Ma 2) is positive d. A and d. P have the same sign. Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct increases, and must decrease as the flow area decreases For Ma > 1, (1 - Ma 2) is negative d. A and d. P have opposite signs. Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and must decrease as the area increases ME 33 : Fluid Flow 24 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area A relationship between d. A and d. V can be derived by substituting V = -d. P/d. V (from the differential Bernoulli equation) Since A and V are positive For subsonic flow (Ma < 1) For supersonic flow (Ma > 1) For sonic flow (Ma = 1) ME 33 : Fluid Flow 25 d. A/d. V < 0 d. A/d. V > 0 d. A/d. V = 0 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers ME 33 : Fluid Flow 26 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases Relations between static properties and stagnation properties in terms of Ma are useful. Earlier, it was shown that stagnation temperature for an ideal gas was Using definitions, the dynamic temperature term can be expressed in terms of Ma ME 33 : Fluid Flow 27 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases Substituting T 0/T ratio into P 0/P and 0/ relations (slide 8) Numerical values of T 0/T, P 0/P and 0/ compiled in Table A-13 for k=1. 4 For Ma = 1, these ratios are called critical ratios ME 33 : Fluid Flow 28 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases ME 33 : Fluid Flow 29 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging or converging-diverging nozzles are found in many engineering applications Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft propulsion, industrial blast nozzles, torch nozzles Here, we will study the effects of back pressure (pressure at discharge) on the exit velocity, mass flow rate, and pressure distribution along the nozzle ME 33 : Fluid Flow 30 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging Nozzles State 1: Pb = P 0, there is no flow, and pressure is constant. State 2: Pb < P 0, pressure along nozzle decreases. State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is sonic, creating maximum flow rate called choked flow. State 4: Pb < Pb, there is no change in flow or pressure distribution in comparison to state 3 State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 31 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging Nozzles Under steady flow conditions, mass flow rate is constant Substituting T and P from the expressions on slides 23 and 24 gives Mass flow rate is a function of stagnation properties, flow area, and Ma ME 33 : Fluid Flow 32 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging Nozzles The maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle with a given throat area A* is fixed by the P 0 and T 0 and occurs at Ma = 1 This principal is important for chemical processes, medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere the mass flux of a gas must be known and controlled. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 33 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging-Diverging Nozzles The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) requires a diverging flow section Converging-diverging (C-D) nozzle Standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket propulsion Forcing fluid through a C-D nozzle does not guarantee supersonic velocity Requires proper back pressure Pb ME 33 : Fluid Flow 34 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging-Diverging Nozzles 1. P 0 > Pb > Pc Flow remains subsonic, and mass flow is less than for choked flow. Diverging section acts as diffuser 2. Pb = PC Sonic flow achieved at throat. Diverging section acts as diffuser. Subsonic flow at exit. Further decrease in Pb has no effect on flow in converging portion of nozzle ME 33 : Fluid Flow 35 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles Converging-Diverging Nozzles 3. PC > Pb > PE Fluid is accelerated to supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the pressure decreases. However, acceleration stops at location of normal shock. Fluid decelerates and is subsonic at outlet. As Pb is decreased, shock approaches nozzle exit. 4. PE > Pb > 0 Flow in diverging section is supersonic with no shock forming in the nozzle. Without shock, flow in nozzle can be treated as isentropic. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 36 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Review Sound waves are created by small pressure disturbances and travel at the speed of sound For some back pressures, abrupt changes in fluid properties occur in C-D nozzles, creating a shock wave Here, we will study the conditions under which shock waves develop and how they affect the flow. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 37 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks which occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow are called normal shock waves Flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot be approximated as being isentropic Develop relationships for flow properties before and after the shock using conservation of mass, momentum, and energy ME 33 : Fluid Flow 38 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks Conservation of mass Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum Increase in entropy ME 33 : Fluid Flow 39 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks Combine conservation of mass and energy into a single equation and plot on h-s diagram Fanno Line : locus of states that have the same value of h 0 and mass flux Combine conservation of mass and momentum into a single equation and plot on h-s diagram Rayleigh line Points of maximum entropy correspond to Ma = 1. Above / below this point is subsonic / supersonic ME 33 : Fluid Flow 40 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks There are 2 points where the Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersect : points where all 3 conservation equations are satisfied Point 1: before the shock (supersonic) Point 2: after the shock (subsonic) The larger Ma is before the shock, the stronger the shock will be. Entropy increases from point 1 to point 2 : expected since flow through the shock is adiabatic but irreversible ME 33 : Fluid Flow 41 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks Equation for the Fanno line for an ideal gas with constant specific heats can be derived Similar relation for Rayleigh line is Combining this gives the intersection points ME 33 : Fluid Flow 42 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks Not all shocks are normal to flow direction. Some are inclined to the flow direction, and are called oblique shocks ME 33 : Fluid Flow 43 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks At leading edge, flow is deflected through an angle called the turning angle Result is a straight oblique shock wave aligned at shock angle relative to the flow direction Due to the displacement thickness, is slightly greater than the wedge half-angle . ME 33 : Fluid Flow 44 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks Like normal shocks, Ma decreases across the oblique shock, and are only possible if upstream flow is supersonic However, unlike normal shocks in which the downstream Ma is always subsonic, Ma 2 of an oblique shock can be subsonic, or supersonic depending upon Ma 1 and . ME 33 : Fluid Flow 45 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks All equations and shock tables for normal shocks apply to oblique shocks as well, provided that we use only the normal components of the Mach number -Ma relationship ME 33 : Fluid Flow Ma 1, n = V 1, n/c 1 Ma 2, n = V 2, n/c 2 46 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks ME 33 : Fluid Flow 47 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks If wedge half angle > max, a detached oblique shock or bow wave is formed Much more complicated that straight oblique shocks. Requires CFD for analysis. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 48 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks Similar shock waves see for axisymmetric bodies, however, -Ma relationship and resulting diagram is different than for 2 D bodies ME 33 : Fluid Flow 49 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Oblique Shocks For blunt bodies, without a sharply pointed nose, = 90 , and an attached oblique shock cannot exist regardless of Ma. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 50 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves Flow turns gradually as each successful Mach wave turns the flow ay an infinitesimal amount ME 33 : Fluid Flow In some cases, flow is turned in the opposite direction across the shock Example : wedge at angle of attack greater than wedge half angle This type of flow is called an expanding flow, in contrast to the oblique shock which creates a compressing flow. Instead of a shock, a expansion fan appears, which is comprised of infinite number of Mach waves called Prandtl. Meyer expansion waves Each individual expansion wave is isentropic : flow across entire expansion fan is isentropic Ma 2 > Ma 1 P, , T decrease across the fan 51 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans also occur in axisymmetric flows, as in the corners and trailing edges of the cone cylinder. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 52 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves Interaction between shock waves and expansions waves in “over expanded” supersonic jet ME 33 : Fluid Flow 53 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice involve chemical reactions such as combustion, nuclear reactions, evaporation, and condensation as well as heat gain or heat loss through the duct wall Such problems are difficult to analyze Essential features of such complex flows can be captured by a simple analysis method where generation/absorption is modeled as heat transfer through the wall at the same rate Still too complicated for introductory treatment since flow may involve friction, geometry changes, 3 D effects We will focus on 1 D flow in a duct of constant crosssectional area with negligible frictional effects ME 33 : Fluid Flow 54 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Consider 1 D flow of an ideal gas with constant cp through a duct with constant A with heat transfer but negligible friction (known as Rayleigh flow) Continuity equation X-Momentum equation ME 33 : Fluid Flow 55 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Energy equation CV involves no shear, shaft, or other forms of work, and potential energy change is negligible. For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cp T Entropy change In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy changes by heat transfer only ME 33 : Fluid Flow 56 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Infinite number of downstream states 2 for a given upstream state 1 Practical approach is to assume various values for T 2, and calculate all other properties as well as q. Plot results on T-s diagram Called a Rayleigh line This line is the locus of all physically attainable downstream states S increases with heat gain to point a which is the point of maximum entropy (Ma =1) ME 33 : Fluid Flow 57 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction must be included for flow through long ducts, especially if the cross-sectional area is small. Here, we study compressible flow with significant wall friction, but negligible heat transfer in ducts of constant cross section. ME 33 : Fluid Flow 58 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction Consider 1 D adiabatic flow of an ideal gas with constant cp through a duct with constant A with significant frictional effects (known as Fanno flow) Continuity equation X-Momentum equation ME 33 : Fluid Flow 59 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction ME 33 : Fluid Flow 60 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Energy equation CV involves no heat or work, and potential energy change is negligible. For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cp T Entropy change In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy changes by heat transfer only ME 33 : Fluid Flow 61 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction Infinite number of downstream states 2 for a given upstream state 1 Practical approach is to assume various values for T 2, and calculate all other properties as well as friction force. Plot results on T-s diagram Called a Fanno line This line is the locus of all physically attainable downstream states s increases with friction to point of maximum entropy (Ma =1). Two branches, one for Ma < 1, one for Ma >1 ME 33 : Fluid Flow 62 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow

Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction ME 33 : Fluid Flow 63 Chapter 12: Compressible Flow