Leastcost formulation and feed production Computer Formulation of
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Least-cost formulation and feed production
Computer Formulation of Feeds • Least-cost feed formulation: a feed formula that is both nutritionally-complete (within limits) and with a minimum ingredient cost (within limits) • now-a-days is developed and completed through the use of computers using linear-programming software • typical packages: Brill, Mix-it • used by most feed mills/manufacturers
Least-cost Formulation • Least-cost feed formulations require that the following information be provided: cost of feed ingredients nutrient content of feed ingredients nutritient requirement of the animal availability of the nutrient to the animal minimum-maximum restrictions on levels
Least-cost Formulations • Costs of feed ingredients and nutrient content are fairly available for most commercial feedstuffs • costs can be evaluated on a daily basis • nutrient requirements are fairly well known • the most critical piece of information regards digestibility/availability of nutrients within the feed ingredient • various indices: DE, ME, APD, etc. • these can be set in formula w/restrictions
Least-cost Formulation • these are nutrient and ingredient restrictions that have been used for least cost formulation of catfish feeds • theoretically, protein level does not have to be restricted if essential amino acid requirements are well-known • for catfish, if the minimum requirements for lysine and the sulfur-containing AA’s are met, other EAA requirements are also met
Least-cost Formulations • Other restrictions: minimum available phosphorus and digestible energy • only maximum calcium is typically considered due to availability in water • whole fish or other animal protein sources have been shown beneficial for catfish feeds • cottonseed meal is restricted to 10% due to gossypol (protein) content (toxic) • xanthophyll content often restricted due to it causing yellow discoloration of fish at high concentrations
Least-cost Restrictions for Shrimp Feeds
Least-cost Formulations: other restrictions • Limitations to computer formulations exist and should be recognized • where the computer says its ok, the experienced formulator knows differently • example: too high fat content for pelleting • example: sorghum might be as good as corn in an extruder, but not a pelletizer • this is why advantages are maximized when a number of options are available
Computer Formulation of Feeds • Originally, the development of feed formulations was a real task • mathematical models formulating nutritionallyadequate diets at lowest cost were available • however, everything had to be hand calculated • feed formulation: the preparation of nutritionallycomplete diets for feeding animals
Least-cost Formulations: other restrictions • In many cases, logistics of obtaining ingredients and their storage limit the number of ingredients • availability of feedstuffs is not as important as having the option to substitute • must also take into consideration the physical, palatability, and toxicological properties of the feed • nutrient availability also varies
Least-cost Formulations: restrictions • As mentioned, most least-cost formulae are derived by linear programming • it has its disadvantage in that it uses data out of the NRC handbook for fixed, maximum growth rates • it does not take into consideration optimum return on growth for various feed nutrient concentrations • this requires regression analysis • regression analysis is now being integrated into poultry formulae, probably not yet available for fish
Part 2: Feed Production Largely provided by Wenger, Inc. and Akiyama
Feed Production • Two major methods: pelletizing and extrusion • steam pelleting produces a dense pellet that sinks rapidly in water • extrusion produces a low density feed particle that has a tendency to float • steam pelleting uses moisture, heat and pressure to agglomerate ingredients into larger, homogenous particles • steam added to the ground feed mash (mix) partially gelatinizes starch, binding ingredients
Pelletizing Feeds • Generally, steam is also added prior to passing the mash through the pellet die • this increases its moisture content to 15 -18% • temperature goes up to about 85 o. C • steam pelleted feeds must be firmly bonded for satisfactory stability in water • starch is important for adequate binding • fat and fiber are antagonistic to process • supplemental fat not added if pelleting
Pelletizing Feeds • All conventional pellet mills include the following equipment: • variable speed feeder • conditioning chamber • die and roller assembly • speed reduction device • prime mover • base • the variable speed feeder provides a continuous, controlled flow of feed mix
Pelletizing Feeds: conditioning • The conditioning chamber is actually a mixer with either fixed or movable paddles • conditioning is accomplished by the addition of controlled amounts of steam • steam liberates natural oils, partially gelatinizes starches, increases temp, increases moisture • starch gelatinization: loss of birefringence or the irreversible rupture of the native secondary bonds in the crystalline region of the starch granule • the speed reduction device is added to reduce motor speeds to that of the die head • this is absolutely critical for the production of consistent-sized particles
Pre-conditioning gelatinization process machine
Sinking vs. Floating Feeds
Typical Pellet Mill
Typical Pellet Mill Process Flow
Typical Pellet Mill
Die Assembly
Comparison: extrusion vs. pelleting Process flow diagrams
Typical Extruder (side view)
Comparison: pelletized vs. extruded feeds
Pellet Comparison: continued
Price Comparison
Feed Appearance • Feeding behavior of aquatic animals is usually associated with some quality of the feed: • odor, palatability, texture, appearance, size • bottom line: a nutritionally-balanced feed is of little value if not consumed • often, the animal must be “attracted” to the particle • example: shrimp feeds w/attractants • leached attractants are detected through chemoreceptors located throughout their body
Attractability/Pallatability • Shrimp, unlike fish, feed by olfaction, not by sight • fish cue on color, appearance, movement, all visionrelated • attractants: fish meal, fish oils, krill meal, shrimp head meal, Artemia meal • feeds with added attractability should bring the target animal immediately to the pellet • without binders, attractants leach out in 2 hr • if not consumed by then, forget it
Attractability/Palatability • Common misconception: if farmer can smell attractant, the feed is good • again, we don’t smell what they smell • palatability: is particle picked-up and then consumed/ingested? • Regards texture and handling ability of pellet • shrimp need this more than fish because they are sloppy eaters!!
Pellet Stability • In the past, farmers thought the longer the pellet stability, the better the feed. . • We now recognize that if a pellet has lost its attractability, it will not likely be eaten • the key is to provide the right combination of attraction and stability • accomplished via binders, but expensive • normal stability: around 4 -6 hrs • determined by: dry matter, immersion, fractures, etc.
More on Appearance • Because some aquatics feed by smell, color is often irrelevant (REM? ? ) • however, color can give you an idea of the nutrient composition and manufacturing quality of the pellet • pellet color should be uniform, few large ingredient particles • shrimp, unlike fish, can remove tiny ingredient particles and discard them
Pellet Appearance • Feed pellets should contain no fractures • fractures are indicative of poor processing and conducive to poor water stability • fractures allow water to seep into pellet more rapidly, pellet hydrates, breaks • feed pellets should not clump together (indivative of poor drying, results in poor nutritional quality, stability) • “fines” from bags should total less than 2% • result: you lose money, get poor water quality
Feed Pellet Size • What feed pellet size you feed is determined by age of animal • size of particle must be the one most efficient for location and consumption by animal • proper nutrient package, right size, welldistributed • smaller pellets usually imply easier distribution • feed particles range in size from less than 50 µM to over 1/8 in. diameter
Feed Pellet Size • Larvae: <50, 50 -125, 250, 500 µM, according to larval substage • postlarvae: flakes, fine crumbles (500 µM) • juveniles to 2 -3 g: medium crumble (1 mm) to coarse crumble (2 mm) • 3 -6 g: short pellet (3/32 x 2 -4 mm) • 6 -10 g: medium pellet (3/32 x 6 mm) • 10 -16 g: long pellet (3/32 x 10 mm) • over 16 g: 1/8 in. diam, various lengths • point: one pellet per shrimp per feeding
Feed Pellet Size • For a 2 mm x 6 mm pellet, you have approximately 1 million pellets per 100 lb bag • if your 10 ha pond has 2 million shrimp in it (20 per sqm), feeding two 100 lb bags gives each shrimp 1 pellet/feeding • 20 pellets per sqm pellet density
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