Learning Targets Module 48 Infancy and Childhood Social

Learning Targets Module 48 Infancy and Childhood: Social Development 48 -1 Describe how parent-infant attachment bonds form. 48 -2 Explain how psychologists have studied attachment differences, and synthesize what they have learned. 48 -3 Discuss how childhood neglect or abuse affects children’s attachments. 48 -4 Trace the onset and development of children’s self-concepts. 48 -5 Describe the four main parenting styles. 48 -6 Describe the outcomes that are associated with each parenting style.

How do parent-infant bonds form? From birth, most babies are social creatures, developing an intense attachment to their caregivers. Infants come to prefer familiar faces and voices, then coo and gurgle when given a parent’s attention.

What is attachment? an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation This striking parent-infant attachment bond is a powerful survival impulse that keeps infants close to their caregivers.

What is stranger anxiety? the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

When does separation anxiety peak? Children’s anxiety over separation anxiety from parents peaks at around 13 months, then gradually declines.

What conditions create anxiety? During the 1950 s, University of Wisconsin psychologists Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow bred monkeys for their learning studies. To equalize experiences and to isolate any disease, they separated the infant monkeys from their mothers shortly after birth and raised them in individual cages, each including a cheesecloth baby blanket. (Harlow et al. , 1971) Then came a surprise: when their soft blankets were taken to be washed, the monkeys became distressed.

How does attachment to a caregiver occur? For many years, psychologists reasoned that infants became attached to those who satisfied their need for nourishment. The Harlows recognized that the monkey’s intense need for the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment.

Harlows’ research design Psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow raised monkeys with two artificial mothers—one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head an attached feeding bottle, the other a cylinder with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with terry cloth.

What were the assumptions in the Harlow study? When raised with both, the monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the comfy cloth mother. Like other infants clinging to their live mothers, the monkey babies would cling to their cloth mothers when anxious.

What were the conclusions of the Harlow study? When exploring their environment, they used her as a secure base, as if attached to her by an invisible elastic band that stretched only so far before pulling them back. Researchers soon learned that other qualities—rocking, warmth, and feeding—made the cloth mother even more appealing.

What is the critical period for development of attachment? Another key to attachment is familiarity. In many animals, attachments based on familiarity form during a critical period—an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development. (Bornstein, 1989)

the critical period For goslings, ducklings, or chicks, the critical period falls in the hours shortly after hatching, when the first moving object they see is normally their mother. From then on, the young fowl follow her, and her alone.

How did Konrad Lorenz explore imprinting in geese? Konrad Lorenz explored imprinting, the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life. Lorenz wondered: What would ducklings do if he was the first moving creature they observed? What they did was follow him around. Although baby birds imprint best to their own species, they also will imprint to a variety of moving objects— an animal of another species, a box on wheels, a bouncing ball. (Colombo, 1982; Johnson, 1992)

Do humans imprint? Children—unlike ducklings—do not imprint. However, they do become attached, during a less precisely defined sensitive period, to what they’ve known. Mere exposure to people and things fosters fondness. Children like to reread the same books, rewatch the same movies, reenact family traditions. They prefer to eat familiar foods, live in the same familiar neighborhood, attend school with the same old friends.

What accounts for children’s attachment differences? Mary Ainsworth designed the strange situation experiment. She observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first six months. Later she observed the 1 -year-old infants in a strange situation (usually a laboratory playroom) with and without their mothers.

What was the strange situation design? a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed Ainsworth found that sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who were securely attached. Insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who were insecurely attached.

What is the difference between a secure and insecure attachment? secure attachment insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

What are two types of insecure attachment? anxious attachment avoidant attachment People constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection. People experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others.

How does an insecure attachment effect romantic relationships? In romantic relationships, an anxious attachment style creates constant concern over rejection, leading people to cling to their partners. An avoidant attachment style decreases commitment and increases conflict. (De. Wall et al. , 2011; Overall et al. , 2015)

What is temperament? a person’s innate and inborn characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Can an infant’s temperament influence attachment? Twin and developmental studies reveal that heredity affects temperament, and temperament affects attachment style. (Picardi et al. , 2011; Raby et al. , 2012) Shortly after birth, some babies are noticeably difficult — irritable, intense, and unpredictable. Others have an easy temperament—cheerful, relaxed, and feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules. (Chess & Thomas, 1987)

How does temperament impact parenting? This helps explain why parenting correlates with children’s behavior; it’s partly because children with difficult temperaments elicit and react more to negative parenting. (Slagt et al. , 2016)

How do we vary parenting while controlling for temperament? One Dutch researcher’s solution was to randomly assign 100 temperamentally difficult 6 - to 9 -montholds to either an experimental group, in which mothers received personal training in sensitive responding, or to a control group, in which they did not. At 12 months of age, 68% of the infants in the experimental group were securely attached, compared to only 28% of the control-group infants. (van den Boom, 1994)

How well do you know yourself? How would you describe your own temperament? Is it similar to or different from that of other family members? Talk with your partner.

What bias historically existed toward fathering? Words have meaning. Infants who lack a caring mother are said to suffer “maternal deprivation”; those lacking a father’s care merely experience “father absence. ” This reflects a wider attitude in which “fathering a child” has meant impregnating, and “mothering” has meant nurturing. Let’s not even talk about the dads that “babysit” their children when the mother goes out.

Parenting is for dad’s too! Emperor penguin dads may lose half their body weight over the two months they spend keeping a precious egg warm during the harsh Antarctic winter. After mom returns from the sea, both parents take turns caring for and feeding the chick.

stay-at-home dads Financial analyst Walter Cranford, is a stay-at-home dad with twins. Cranford says the experience has made him appreciate how difficult the work can be: “Sometimes at work you can just unplug, but with this you’ve got to be going all the time. ”

What does the research show about the power of dads? Across nearly 100 studies worldwide, a father’s love and acceptance have been comparable with a mother’s love in predicting their offspring’s health and well-being. (Rohner & Veneziano, 2001)

What impact does involved fathering have on children’s success in school? In one large British longitudinal study following 7, 259 children from birth to adulthood, those whose fathers were most involved in parenting (through outings, reading to them, and taking an interest in their education) tended to achieve more in school. (Flouri & Buchanan, 2004)

What are the co-parenting positives?

How does a secure attachment lead to a sense of basic trust? Developmental psychologist Erikson working with his wife, Joan Erikson believed that securely attached children approach life with a sense of basic trust—a sense that the world is predictable and reliable. He attributed basic trust not to environment or inborn temperament, but to early parenting. He theorized that infants blessed with sensitive, loving caregivers form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear.

1. What Would You Answer? According to research done by Erik and Joan Erikson, children who are securely attached are also likely to be: A. parented by authoritarian parents. B. developing a sense of basic trust. C. raised in a neglectful environment. D. less likely to show stranger anxiety. E. able to think in an abstract manner.

How does childhood abuse or neglect affect children’s attachment? One of the most provocative studies on children deprived of care came from Romanian orphanages. These socially deprived children had lower intelligence scores, reduced brain development, abnormal stress responses, and quadruple the rate of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) found in children assigned to quality foster care settings. (Bick et al. , 2015; Kennedy et al. , 2016; Mc. Laughlin et al. , 2015; Nelson et al. , 2014)

Romanian orphanages In this 1980 s Romanian orphanage the 250 children between ages one and five outnumbered caregivers 15 to 1.

How does extreme early trauma impact the brain? Abused children’s brains respond to angry faces with heightened activity in threat-detecting areas. (Mc. Crory et al. , 2011) In conflict-plagued homes, even sleeping infants’ brains show heightened reactivity to hearing angry speech. (Graham et al. , 2013) If repeatedly threatened and attacked while young, normally placid golden hamsters grow up to be cowards when caged with same-sized hamsters, or bullies when caged with weaker ones. (Ferris, 1996)

What are the long-term impacts of abuse? Child abuse can also leave epigenetic marks— chemical tags—that can alter normal gene expression. Such findings help explain why young children who have survived severe or prolonged physical abuse, childhood sexual abuse, bullying, or wartime atrocities are at increased risk for health problems, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminality. (Lereya et al. , 2015; Trickett et al. , 2011; Whitelock et al. , 2013; Wolke et al. , 2013)

Can adversity produce well-adjusted adults? Most children growing up under adversity (such as the surviving children of the Holocaust and victims of childhood sexual abuse) are resilient; they withstand the trauma and become well-adjusted adults. (Clancy, 2010; Helmreich, 1992; Masten, 2001)

What is a self-concept? Infancy’s major social achievement is attachment. Childhood’s major social achievement is a positive sense of self. By the end of childhood, at about age 12, most children have developed a self-concept—an understanding and assessment of who they are.

How does self-concept develop? In 1877, biologist Charles Darwin offered one idea: self-awareness begins when we recognize ourselves in a mirror.

What research has been conducted on self-concept? To see whether a child recognizes that the girl in the mirror is indeed herself, researchers dabbed color on her nose. At about 6 months, children reach out to touch their mirror image as if it were another child. (Courage & Howe, 2002; Damon & Hart, 1982, 1988, 1992) By 15 to 18 months, they begin to touch their own noses when they see the colored spot in the mirror. (Butterworth, 1992; Gallup & Suarez, 1986)

Why does selfconcept matter? Children’s views of themselves affect their actions. Children who form a positive selfconcept are more confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and sociable. (Maccoby, 1980)

How can parents and stepparents encourage a positive self-concept? The most heavily researched aspect of parenting has been how, and to what extent, parents seek to control their children. Parenting styles can be described as a combination of two traits: how responsive and how demanding parents are. (Kakinami et al. , 2015)

2. What Would You Answer? An 18 -month-old typically recognizes herself in a mirror. This self-awareness contributes to A. self-assurance. B. self-concept. C. self-esteem. D. self-actualization. E. self-determination.

What are four types of parenting styles? authoritarian parents impose rules and demand obedience permissive parents set few limits, make few demands and use little punishment authoritative parents set rules but allow open discussion and exceptions negligent parents are careless, inattentive and do not seek a close relationship with their children

AP® Exam Tip It’s understandable if you are struggling to remember the differences between authoritarian and authoritative. Maybe it will help to realize that authoritative parents will engage in a little more give and take, while authoritarian parents do not negotiate. The words give and authoritative both end in the letters ive. Or perhaps another mnemonic device could help you remember the difference between these like-sounding terms?

What outcomes are associated with authoritarian parenting styles? Children with less social skill and self-esteem, and a brain that overreacts when they make mistakes.

What outcomes are associated with permissive parenting styles? Children who are more aggressive and immature

What outcomes are associated with negligent parenting styles? Children with poor academic and social outcomes.

What outcomes are associated with authoritative parenting styles? Children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, selfregulation, and social competence.

Beware the correlational fallacy…

3. What Would You Answer? Keisha’s parents could be described as permissive. Jasmine’s parents could be described as authoritative. Describe the reactions of each set of parents when the girls ask if they can stay out past curfew.

Learning Target 48 -1 Review Describe how parent-infant attachment bonds form. § At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. § Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important, because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. § Ducks and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period.

Learning Target 48 -2 Review Explain how psychologists have studied attachment differences, and synthesize what they have learned. § Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached. § Sensitive, responsive parents tend to have securely attached children.

Learning Target 48 -2 Review cont. Explain how psychologists have studied attachment differences, and synthesize what they have learned. § Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erikson’s idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers. § Yet it’s become clear that temperament—our characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity— also plays a huge role in how our attachment patterns form.

Learning Target 48 -3 Review Discuss how childhood neglect or abuse affects children’s attachments. § Children are very resilient, but those who are moved repeatedly, severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments by an early age may be at risk for attachment problems. § Extreme trauma in childhood may alter the brain, affecting our stress responses or leaving epigenetic marks.

Learning Target 48 -4 Review Trace the onset and development of children’s self-concepts. § Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. § At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. § By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by ages 8 to 10 their self-image is stable.

Learning Target 48 -5 Review Describe the four main parenting styles. § The main parenting styles are authoritarian (coercive), permissive (unrestraining), negligent (uninvolved), and authoritative (confrontive).

Learning Target 48 -6 Review Describe the outcomes that are associated with each parenting style. § Authoritarian parenting is associated with lower selfesteem, less social skill, and a brain that overreacts to mistakes. § Permissive parenting is associated with greater aggression and immaturity. § Negligent parenting is associated with poor academic and social outcomes. § Authoritative parenting is associated with greater selfesteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence.