Learning skills brain cognition Jaana Holvikivi 2011 Contents

Learning skills, brain & cognition Jaana Holvikivi 2011

Contents Ø Intelligence and learning Ø Brain and cognition Ø Learning styles and cognitive skills Ø Self-regulation Ø Motivation

Teachers Social interaction, study group Mediating structures: instruction, methods, artefacts Student Information, knowledge Learning as a knowledge creation process Expert community Activity and practice Development of expertise Previous knowledge and mental schemas Guidance: Metacognitive skills and abilities, motivation Emotional states, feelings, physical wellbeing Holvikivi Advising of studies and student support

Engineering expertise Technical skills Knowledge Social & communication skills Management skills Problemsolving Reasoning Creativity Motivation Initiative Attitudes

Learning Community: Students & Teachers Expert community Learning through activity, practice & theory Information Mediating artifacts Methods Engineering expertise Technical skills Knowledge Social & communication skills Management skills Problemsolving Reasoning Creativity Motivation Initiative Attitudes

Embodied cultural experience Personal qualities Personality, Feelings, Reactions, Knowledge Cognitive styles, skills Learning approaches Motivation Metacognitive skills, Habits Cultural schemas Communication styles Social relations Attitudes Relations to artifacts LIFE Learning Community: Students & Teachers Expert community Learning through activity, practice & theory Information Mediating artifacts Methods Engineering expertise Technical skills Knowledge Social & communication skills Management skills Problemsolving Reasoning Creativity Motivation Initiative Attitudes

Intelligence and expert performance

IQ, general intelligence Ø Linguistic competence Ø Reasoning Ø Spatial ability Ø Analytic and number skills Ø General knowledge Ø Visual & auditory processing Ø Long-term storage and retrieval Ø Working memory and processing speed

Views of intelligence Ø Academic success requires analytical intelligence, GI Ø Modern society versus instinctive behavior l l evolution prepared us for natural surroundings, schooling prepares us for information society Ø IQ does not seem to predict expertise nor does it predict the acquisition of complex problem-solving competence

Successful intelligence (R. Sternberg) Ø analytical intelligence, Ø practical intelligence Ø creative intelligence, Ø ethical intelligence, Ø executive processes to plan and control activity are instrumental for successful performance.

Multiple intelligences Ø linguistic, Ø bodily-kinesthetic, Ø spatial, Ø musical, Ø logical-mathematical, Ø intrapersonal, Ø interpersonal, Ø naturalist intelligences Ø emotional intelligence

Other views on intelligence Ø Intelligent action l l l as deciding what to do next; if the environment is well-designed and wellknown to the person, intelligent action is greatly facilitated. people are not particularly good at tasks that require abstract reasoning or intensive recall but they excel at using resources in a systematic but creative fashion to work their way to solutions.

Other views on intelligence Ø Ø The Cree in Canada (hunters): l showing respect, self-control, and listening attentively are essential parts of intelligent behavior, in addition to good sense of direction, wisdom and a quick wit. l Insensitivity, living like a white, and craziness were seen as negative competences. Chinese views of intelligence: l focus on hard work and effort, l intelligence is not a quality of a person but behavior. The Japanese view of intelligence encompasses l social competence such as one's ability to sympathize with others. African conceptions of intelligence focus on l wisdom, l trustworthiness and l social attentiveness.

The acquisition of expert performance as problem solving Even the most talented individuals in a domain must spend over ten years actively engaging in particular practice activities (deliberate practice) that lead to gradual improvements in skill and adaptation that increase performance to achieve mastery. Ø The acquisition of expert performance can be described as a sequence of mastered challenges with increasing levels of difficulty Ø The mental representations of experts appear to be qualitatively different from those of less skilled individuals. It is not simply a difference in accumulated knowledge about past experience. Ø Expert – novice differences appear to reflect differential ability to react to representative tasks and situations that have never been previously encountered. Ø

The acquisition of expert performance Comparison of several groups of professional musicians representing different levels of achievement: Ø the most accomplished had spent more time in activities classified as deliberate practice: by the age of 20, the best musicians had spent over 10, 000 hours practicing, which is 2, 500 and 5, 000 hours more than two less accomplished groups, respectively, and 8, 000 hours more than amateur pianists of the same age. Ø elite performers report a very high level of focus and concentration during deliberate practice. Practice sessions were limited to around one hour at a time; maximal level of deliberate practice was found to be 4 -5 hours when sustained daily for months and years. Ø

Problem solving by experts and novices Ø Ø Ø Ø Experts possessed greater domain-specific knowledge about a task that novices. Experts excelled mainly in their own domains and did not have greater knowledge or general problem-solving abilities. Experts perceived meaningful patterns, redefined and classified problems according to underlying principals. They organize their knowledge more hierarchically than novices. Experts performed quickly because they took strategic shortcuts. Experts spent more time in analyzing and planning. Experts redefined and reinterpreted the task. Experts monitored their performance more carefully. Good self-regulation. High levels of motivation.

Intuitive and formal reasoning systems deductive reasoning Ø categorization Ø analogical reasoning Ø decision-making Ø belief formation Ø social cognition Ø Western: analytical mode of thought dominant (? ) Ø East Asian: holistic mode of thought (? ) Ø

Contextualization in reasoning Environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) favored the tendency to contextualize a problem with as much prior knowledge as is easily accessible Ø The tendency to socialize problems. To see deliberate design and pattern in situations that lack intentional design. (superstition) Ø Seeing intentional design in random events. Ø l “Financial analysts tend to concoct elaborate explanations for every little fluctuation in stock market prices even though the fluctuations are mainly random. ” The intentional interpreter in our brains does not automatically decouple itself from problems when it is not needed. Ø The narrative mode of thought. Ø

Learning, perception and memory

Memory and Emotions Mood knowledge Learning situation Concentration: alertness motivation Perception

Modalities: perception Chemical senses: Smell, Taste Brain Audition Working memory Stored experience: Memory Emotions Movement Action Vision Mechanical senses: touch, pain Body state (hunger, vestibular sensation, etc. )

Human cognitive capacity 1 Ø Based on patterns and schemas Ø Chess masters remember nearly all pieces in a game Ø Affordances: visual object is perceived through intended action; perception depends on context Ø Auditive and visual input separate

Auditory and visual input Yakking drivers are four times more likely to crash their cars. Using a hands-free headset instead of handheld phone made no difference at all. Ø The brain can be intensely aware of what is coming through either the eyes or the ears but not both at the same time. (Certain brain regions were activated when subjects consciously chose to see; these were muted when they chose to hear. ) Ø

Auditory and visual input The use of sound during visual training can enhance later performance on a purely visual task, a finding that demonstrates just how much multisensory interaction occurs in brain areas that before now were thought to be dedicated solely to vision. Ø Multisensory interactions can be exploited to yield more efficient learning of sensory information Ø People can focus on more than three items at a time l if those items share a common color like players in a football team. They perceive separate individuals as a single set. Color seems to be the easiest sorting tool. Ø

Human cognitive capacity 2 Attention: selective perception Ø Object and background: discrimination, exceptional features Ø Attention is directed to one object Ø Memory registers also unconscious perception Ø Automatic actions (bicycle riding) do not need attention; but then action becomes fixed, difficult to modify (changes in interface) Ø

Which way does the airplane fall? Mental framework 1 Mental framework 2

MEMORY Long term or Reference memory Short term memory Sensory memory Working memory Declarative memory Procedural memory Central Modalities executive Semantic memory Recognition Recall Episodic memory Motor Perceptual Conditioning Habituation and skills learning sensitation

Improving memorizing Timing of activities is decisive when storing information to the memory. Ø In an experiment, where fruit flies were trained to avoid a particular odor, it was found that massed training, giving the flies the same number of training experiences in rapid succession, did not produce an enduring memory; Ø l l Ø Ø spaced training, with session intervals of 15 minutes, did produce the memory. Distributed practice works better than massed practice. Spreading out your study is better than cramming. There is a specific time interval, about six to eight hours after training, when the neural activity is particularly strong, and lasting memories are formed.

Improving memorizing Memory consolidation takes place while we sleep, and it takes up to a few weeks of repeated rehearsal for the molecular reactions controlling gene and protein synthesis to record long-term memories. Ø If the interval between rehearsal sessions is too long, the short-term memory will have weakened too much to benefit from repetition. Ø Also, having a break and relaxing after intensive working often releases creativity and yields a solution to the problem under consideration. Ø

Memorizing Rats learn to navigate new spaces by replaying memories in reverse order: Ø After exploring an environment such as a maze, rats typically pause to eat, groom or rub their whiskers. Electrodes in rat’s hippocampus monitored so-called place neurons, which fire in specific sequence as a rat navigates a path. When various rats paused on completion of a run, the place neurons fired in reverse order from the firing that had occurred during navigation. This reverse replay occurred more frequently after walking through new mazes than familiar ones, implying that the technique plays a role in learning. Ø

Cognition and emotion Happiness and positive mood increases flexibility in problem solving. Ø Affect, cognition, and motivation influence one another. Ø Ø Meaningful and emotional information is retained better in memory than purely factual information. l l It does not necessarily indicate, however, that the memories would be accurate in relation to factual events, especially if they are connected to strong feelings. Memories do change.

Cognition and emotion Ø Stress weakens attention and working memory. l Ø It rises levels of noradrenalin, dopamine, and cortisol in the brain, and induce neuron destruction in hippocampus. The production of new neurons in hippocampus is also reduced under stress. Laughing has numerous benefits for health as well as learning. l l Laughing reduces stress because the level of cortisol is reduced and levels of epinephrine decrease. Laughing improves memory: Students who watched an episode of "Friends" after studying for an exam, got 20% better grades than the control group that did not have fun.

Music in brain Brain imaging studies: when people listen to music, the neural activation proceeds from the auditory system to regions related to planning, expectation and language as well as arousal, pleasure, mood and rhythmic movement. Ø Music engages nearly every area of the brain. Ø Music promotes cognitive development. Ø Music reaches deep into the brain's most primitive structures, including the "reptilian brain" tied to motivation, reward and emotion. Ø Music elevates dopamine levels. Ø

Types of intelligence and teaching Ø Experiment with four methods Ø One group was subjected to the "traditional" teaching method that is called memory condition, which includes presenting the material which students have to memorize and represent. In the analytical condition, students are asked to compare and contrast theories. In the creative condition, they are asked to formulate their own theory based on the facts. In the practical condition, they are asked to apply theoretical knowledge in a real-life problem. All students were evaluated in the same way for memory, practical, analytical, and creative quality. The results confirmed that students who got instruction that matched their cognitive style, performed better than others. Ø Ø

Memory condition teaching resulted in an inferior outcome than other methods. Ø Students who were subjected to a multicondition teaching that included analytical, practical, and creative methods, performed best in all types of tests that included practicing analysis, creativity, and practical application, Ø even in better memorization of the material than the memory condition students Ø Students who were strong in analytical skills, had an advantage over others in all conditions, a consequence of the emphasis on analytical way of teaching in all school instruction. Ø

Teacher Instruction, methods, artifacts Experience with artifacts Information Embodied knowledge, feelings Social interaction Communication styles Activity and practice Expert community Ways of action Student Learning Development of expertise Learning approaches Reactions, skills Metacognitive abilities Cultural influence Learning styles Previous Cultural knowledge schemas Problem solving through progressive inquiry