LEARNING Long lasting change in behavior due to

LEARNING Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience

Classical Conditioning crash course khanacademy • Ivan Pavlov – studied digestion of dogs – noticed dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…) – concluded: dogs must have LEARNED to salivate in response to stimuli other than the food Click above to see a reenactment of Pavlov’s experiments.

Classical Conditioning • This is passive learning. • First, we need an unconditional relationship. ü Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - something that elicits a natural, reflexive response ü Unconditioned Response (UCR) - response to the UCS

Classical Conditioning • Next, we choose a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response). • We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

Classical Conditioning • After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS. • Acquisition

Classical Conditioning • We know learning takes places when the previously neutral stimulus provokes the response. • At this point, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

Generalization and khanacademy • Something is so similar to the CS that there is the CR. Discrimination • Something is so different from the CS there is no CR.

Classical Conditioning • Acquisition is not permanent. • The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

Spontaneous Recovery • Sometimes, after extinction, the CR will randomly appear when CS is presented.

Classical Conditioning Examples See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR. Click above to see classical conditioning as portrayed in The Office. Click above to see classical conditioning in a high school student’s own “experiment”.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: UCS ? UCR? CS? CR? You typically take showers in the locker room after practice. During one such shower, you hear someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water rushes out of the shower head, causing serious discomfort. As you continue the shower, you hear another toilet flush and immediately jump out form under the shower head.

UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Your mother prepared a tuna sandwich for your lunch. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise she used had been left out too long and was spoiled. Not long after eating, you felt extremely nauseated and had to rush to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of a tuna sandwich sent you scurrying to the bathroom with a hurting stomach.

UCS? UCR? CS? CR? You were happy when you heard your family's plan to go to a water show. Then you heard the weather report, which predicted temperatures exceeding 100 degrees. As you watched the water skiers perform routines to blaring organ music, you got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, you fainted from the heat. After the family outing you could never again hear organ music without feeling a little dizzy.

Watson and “Little Albert” • John Watson (founder of behaviorism) and Rosalie Rayner’s 1913 study on classical conditioning. • “Little Albert” Experiment – Watson paired the presence of a white rat with a loud noise to elicit fear from a young boy. • Albert learned to associate the white rat with loud noises even after the noises had stopped. • Albert even generalized his CR by reacting with fear to other white animals and objects.

Classical Conditioning and Humans Click the image to the left to see footage from the “Baby Albert” experiment.

Garcia and Koelling Study • Showed that classical conditioning was influenced by biological predispositions. • Study using rats led to the phenomena known as taste aversion. • Rats learned to avoid drinking from certain water sources that contained water tainted with radiation that made them sick. • Also showed that the CS and the UCS could be paired hours apart and still result in CR. CS UCS CR Loud Noise Radiation (nausea) NONE Sweet Water Shock NONE Sweet Water Radiation (nausea) Avoid Water

Taste Aversions • In cases of food paired with nausea & sickness, conditioning is incredibly strong. ü even when food and sickness are hours apart

Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

Theories on Taste Aversion • Garcia argues that taste aversion is a byproduct of the evolutionary history of mammals. • Animals that consumed poisonous foods and survive must learn not to repeat their mistakes. • Natural selection will favor organisms that quickly learn what NOT to eat. • Thus, evolution may have biologically programed (or predisposed) some organisms to learn certain types of associations more easily than others. • The AP test will call this (biological) preparedness.

Contingency Model • Robert Rescorla – revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning model – starts with the realization that something must account for the ability to discriminate between stimuli – emphasized the role of cognitive processes during acquisition – said that classical conditioning “is not a stupid process by which the organism willy -nilly forms associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur. ”

Cognition in Classical Conditioning • Martin Seligman – developed the idea of learned helplessness • Learned helplessness – passive resignation an organism learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events • Seligman’s studies with dogs and shocks showed further evidence of thought processes involved with classical conditioning • Even though dogs conditioned to expect a shock after a flash of light warning were subsequently given a route of escape, many chose to not even attempt escape. They had classically learned to be helpless.

Operant Conditioning start @ 5: 47 The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!! khan academy Big Bang

The Law of Effect Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect. • Edward Thorndike • Locked cats in crates • Behavior changes because of its consequences • Rewards strengthen behavior • If consequences are unpleasant, the stimulusreward connection will weaken. • Called the whole process instrumental learning

B. F. Skinner • Psychologist and leading figure in behaviorist movement. • Developed an operant chamber; what came to be known as a “Skinner Box”. • Used the concept of shaping to reinforce a desired behavior. • Shaping involves rewarding responses that are evercloser to final desired behavior while ignoring all other responses.

Skinner Box

Types of stimuli • Appetitive (pleasant) stimulus • Organism wants to achieve or receive • Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus • Organism wants to avoid or escape from

Reinforcers khanacademy • A reinforcer is anything that strengthens (increases) a behavior Positive Reinforcement: • The addition of something pleasant Negative Reinforcement: • The removal of something unpleasant

Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer • stimuli that satisfy a biological need • Food, sleep, sex, thirst, homeostasis, etc. • things that are intrinsically rewarding • things we have learned to value (because they are associated with primary enforcers) – Money, good grades, attention, applause, etc. • Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

Token Economy • Every time a desired behavior is performed, a “token” is given. • They can trade “tokens” in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) • Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT PUNISHMENT

Positively or Negatively Reinforced? Putting your seatbelt on. Faking sick and avoiding AP Psych class. Studying for a test. Taking an aspirin. Breaking out of jail. Receiving a kiss for doing the dishes.

Reinforcement Puppy Training • Pet experts say that because the way dogs learn the best method for training is based on reward (reinforcement) rather than punishment. • Reinforcement however can also “bite” you if undesirable behaviors are encouraged • Ex: Lucy barks so Mr. Gondek lets her out of her crate.

The Premack Principle • According to the Premack Principle, a more probable (or more enjoyable) behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable (or less enjoyable) one. • For example, I study for an hour and then take a break to watch TV or check Facebook. Then I go back to studying. Knowing that the reward of the break is around the corner keeps me working.

Punishment • A stimulus meant to decrease a behavior Positive Punishment • addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) • removal of something pleasant • Punishment works best when it immediately follows behavior and is harsh!

+ Positive Reinforcement Punishment Gives something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject wants thing/condition) Gives something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition) Negative Takes something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition) Takes something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject would like to have this thing/condition)

Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning If I wanted to reinforce a toddler’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances, identify the following… • Acquisition • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Generalization • Discrimination

Reinforcement Schedules khanacademy How often do you give the reinforcer? • Every time the desired behavior is exhibited or just sometimes when it is?

Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Continuous • Reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited. • Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association. • Acquisition comes really fast, but so does extinction. Partial • Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited. • Acquisition comes more slowly. • But is more resistant to extinction. • FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

Interval Schedules (Time) Fixed Interval Variable Interval • Requires a SET • Requires a RANDOM (specific) amount of (unpredictable) amount time to elapse before of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. • An administrator observes a teacher on every other Friday. random occasions • Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.

Ratio Schedules (Responses) Fixed Ratio • • Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses. – You buy 10 smoothies, you get a free one. (10: 1) – For every pair of jeans you sell you get • $5. (1: 5) Variable Ratio Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. – Slot machines – you pull 10 times, get money; then you pull 15 times, get money, then you pull 7 times, get money (10: 1), (15: 1), (7: 1) Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.

A Few Notes on Schedules of Reinforcement More than 50 years of research has yielded an enormous volume of data on how these schedules of reinforcement are related to patterns of responding: 1. Fixed schedules typically cause extinction of behavior more quickly after the reinforcement ceases. 2. Variable schedules have a higher resistance to extinction than fixed schedules. 3. Higher ratios generate higher response rates. (1: 1 is better than 10: 1) 4. Shorter intervals (time between reinforcement) generate higher rates overall.

Skinner and Superstitious Behavior • B. F. Skinner argued that superstitious behavior could be established through non-contingent reinforcement. • Non-contingent reinforcement occurs when an unimportant response is accidentally or unintentionally reinforced. • Skinner used pigeons in operant chambers for his experiments on superstitious behavior. • The pigeons began displaying strange, quirky responses to random reinforcement in the hopes that behavior would cause another reinforcement.

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? khanacademy • Sometimes, we use a process called shaping. • Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to a desired behavior. These small steps are called approximations.

Chaining Behaviors • Subjects are taught to link multiple responses together in order to get a reward. Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors. .

Latent Learning • Edward Tolman – demonstrated the concept using rats/mazes & reinforcers. • Learning is not always immediately observable in behavior (“latent” means hidden). • Learning doesn’t completely depend on consequences. • cognitive maps – a mental representation of one’s environment

Cognition in operant conditioning • Edward Tolman – displayed cognitive processes in operant conditioning through studies with rats and mazes • In one landmark study, three groups of food deprived rats learned to run a complex maze over a series of once-a-day trials. • The rats in Group A received a food reward when completed. • The rats in Group B did not receive any food reward. • The rats in Group C did not receive any food reward for the first 10 trials but did from the 11 th onward.

Results of Tolman’s Experiment • As a result of the reinforcement, Group A gradually improved. • Lacking reinforcement, Group B showed only modest improvement. • Once reinforcement began for Group C, they showed sharp improvement on the subsequent trials, even better than Group A. • Tolman concluded that Group C had been learning about the maze all along, but they had no motivation to demonstrate this learning until a reward was introduced. • Tolman called this phenomenon latent learning: learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs

Results of Tolman’s Experiment • These results changed our understanding of learning in two ways: • 1. They suggested that learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement. • 2. The rats who displayed latent learning formed a cognitive map (a mental representation of the maze’s spatial layout) at a time when cognition was thought to be irrelevant in understanding how organisms learn.

The Overjustification Effect • Intrinsic v. Extrinsic motivation • Intrinsic = do it because you enjoy it • Extrinsic = do it because you will be reinforced • Studies have proven that rewarding an organism for a task that organism already enjoys doing will cause a decrease in that behavior once the reinforcement ceases. • This is called the overjustification effect. Would Lebron James still enjoy playing basketball if he were no longer paid for it?

Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement Primary vs. Conditioned Ratio Schedules Concepts / Components Interval Negative Punishment Operant Conditioning Positive Response / Stimulus Associations Thorndike Law of Effect / Cat Experiments Skinner Box / Rat & Bird Experiments People

Insight Learning • Wolfgang Kohler Chimpanzees / Boxes & Bananas experiment • Learning takes place through the “ah ha” experience (gaining “insight”). • Weakens the behaviorist argument (emphasis on external, behavior / consequence relationship)

Images from Kohler’s chimpanzee experiments

Observational Learning • Observational learning - a type of social cognitive learning; learning by observing others • Social cognitive learning (or the Social Learning Theory) says learning happens by watching other being rewarded or punished for a specific behavior. • We learn all kinds of specific behaviors by observing and imitating others, a process called modeling.

Neurological basis of Observational Learning • Recently scientists have discovered specific types of neurons related to observational learning. • Mirror neurons - a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another • Some argue that mirror neurons are used to humans understand the actions and intentions of others. • Some say they are tied to language development and emotional displays of empathy. • Low levels have been linked to autism.

Bandura and Observational Learning khanacademy crash course • Albert Bandura - Bo. Bo Doll experiment • Learning through modeling behavior from others. • Experiment showcased the Click pic to see footage from the Bobo Doll experiment. degree to which children vicariously learn and subsequently imitate behaviors learned by observing adults • Implications of Bandura’s findings?

Associative Learning Classical Conditioning S+S Operant Conditioning R+S Latent Learning Other Insight Learning Observational Learning