LEARNING Learning Behavior You learn by observing Change

LEARNING

Learning � Behavior › You learn by observing � Change › Connections between neurons are formed � Relatively enduring › Change is usually permanent � Practice and experience › Reinforces

Learning � Stimulus – produces activity in an organism › Anything perceived by the senses – smell, touch, taste, sight, hearing � Response – reaction of an organism to a stimulus › Stimulus: Bright light › Response: Close/cover your eyes

Ivan Pavlov � Russian psychologist � Won the Nobel Peace Prize � Classical Conditioning � Conducted his research on dogs

Natural Response � Unconditioned Response (UCR) › unlearned, occurs naturally, no conditioning or training are needed in order to produce this response � Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) › the stimulus that causes the UCR

Learned Response � Conditioned response (CR) › Learned response � Conditioned stimulus (CS) › A stimulus presented that wouldn’t normally cause a certain response

Pavlov’s Experiment � What happens when a dog is given food ? › Gets excited, jumps around, salivates � What happens when you ring a bell? › Gets excited jumps around, NO salivating � What happens if every time you give a dog food you rang a bell? › The dog will eventually salivate � What happens now if you ring the bell? › The dog will salivate

Pavlov’s Experiment UCS › Food � UCR › Salivation � CS › Bell � CR › Salivation � � Why does the dog now salivate to the sound of the bell? › The dog has learned to associate the bell with food – he learned something!

Pavlov’s Observations � The following 4 areas play a role in classical conditioning › › Time between CS and UCS Repetition Extinction Generalization and discrimination

Applications of Classical Conditioning � 1. Counterconditioning › Changing a negative response to a positive one � 2. Flooding › Having a person face their fear continuously � 3. Desensitization › Gradually exposing a person to something they fear

Operant Conditioning �A behavior is learned in connection with a reward or punishment

E. L. Thorndike Operant conditioning � Placed a cat in a “puzzle box” � › One lever in the box would open the door › The cat would claw around and eventually find the lever › Once the door opened the cat was able to get out and received a reward (food) › The cat was put back in the box, it would claw around again and find the lever, get out of the box and receive the reward › After a number of trials the cat new exactly where to go to get his reward

B. F. Skinner � Behavior psychologist � Respondent behavior › The response that is involuntary, it doesn’t have to be learned, it happens automatically � Operant behavior › Voluntary behavior, choosing to do something � Reinforcement › Encourages or discourages a behavior

Principles of Operant Conditioning � Any response followed by a reinforcing stimulus tends to be repeated �A stimulus is considered reinforcing when it increases the rate of an operant behavior

Primary and Secondary Reinforcements � Primary › A stimulus that is tied to some aspect of survival (food, water) � Secondary › A stimulus that is not necessary for survival, (money, praise)

Changes in Operant Conditioning � Generalization › when stimuli are similar but not identical, and the CR still occurs � Discrimination › learning the difference between two similar stimuli � Extinction › getting rid of a response

Shaping �A method of refining a behavior by reinforcing behaviors that are close to the desired behavior � Eventually the reinforcements will lead to the actual desired behavior

Chaining � Teaching steps to a desired behavior separately � Once each behavior is linked together you get the actual desired behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement � How often must a person receive reinforcement for a behavior to continue? Fixed Schedule › Given consistently � Variable Schedule › Given at different rates or times �

Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio Schedule › Based on the number of times a behavior occurs and the rate at which it’s reinforced � Interval Schedule � › Reinforcement is given after a specific amount of time

Biology of Conditioning � Taste Aversion › Develop a dislike for a particular food if it resulted in an illness › Adaptive behavior � Instinctual Drift › Instincts › We drift towards certain things because of inborn tendencies

Latent Learning � Edward Tolman › Individuals interact with the environment › Form associations between two different stimuli › Cognitive maps – associations made previously that can be used at a later time › Latent learning – using a previously learned behavior at a later time, but when you learned it, it wasn’t obvious that you could use it for something else

Insight Learning � Wolfgang Kohler � Figuring out a method or behavior › Placed chimpanzees in cages with bananas hanging from the ceiling › In the cages were several boxes › Chimps tried jumping and climbing to get to the bananas › After a while they studied the boxes › They then stacked the boxes, climbed on top and got the bananas

Cognitive Theories � Cognition › › Thinking Memory formation Learning Problem solving

Jean Piaget � French psychologist � Mental abilities develop as a function of biological development & experience � Schemas contain info. About › › Objects Actions Events Relationships �Example: Morning routine

Jean Piaget � Children are already born with certain schema › › Suck Reach Look Grasp

Stages of Cognitive Development � 1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years) › Differentiates self from objects › Object permanence – things continue to exist even when they are no longer present to the senses � 2. Preoperational (2 -7 years) › Use language, represent objects with words

Stages of Cognitive Development � 3. Concrete operational (7 -12) › Think logically › Classifies objects by several features (size, color, shape) � 4. Formal operational (12 & up) › Become concerned with the hypothetical, the present, and the future

Factors Affecting Learning � Meaningfulness › Words or ideas that have personal meaning � Transfer › Learning new information, but being able to use it in real world situations � Chemical Influence › Stimulants – caffeine, soda, coffee – inc. brain chemicals and may allow for more rapid learning › Depressants – alcohol – reduce nerve firing and the potential for learning

Social or Observational Learning � Albert Bandura › Direct experience › Vicarious experience - observing

Bandura’s Research � Divided preschool children into 2 groups › One watched a film of an adult playing quietly with a doll › The other watched a film of an adult playing aggressively with the doll �Punching, kicking, throwing it around the room � Later, when the children were allowed to play with toys, those who had seen the more aggressive film were more than twice as likely to act aggressively

Processes in Observational Learning Acquisition or modification of a behavior after at least one exposure to the behavior � Attention � Retention � Motor Reproduction Processes � Motivation

Violence in the Media � Observational Learning › Media violence can encourage violent behavior › Children brought up in a home where there is no aggressive behavior or punishment are usually less likely to exhibit violent behaviors seen in the media.

Current Approaches � Individual › › differences in cognitive processes The big picture Minor details Hands-on Think or reasoning

Factors that Influence Learning � Emotions › Advantageous to learning › If emotions are overwhelming, little learning takes place � Evolutionary › Processes are inborn and are turned on by situations we face each day

Factors the Influence Learning � Culture › Values – learning depends on your family values › Perceptual Processes – how do you perceive what you come into contact with › Intelligence – varies among people