LEARNING CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW What is Learning Classical

LEARNING CHAPTER 7

OVERVIEW • What is Learning? • Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • Observational Learning • Biological Bases of Learning

WHAT IS LEARNING? • Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience – Ex: Door-to-door salesmen & me • Learning tends to produce lasting changes in behavior • Learned behavior results from interaction with environment – Nurture or experience/environment are key – Learning changes your brain

LEARNING BEFORE AFTER • Cat’s cortex before & after it learned to associate a stimulus (seeing a horizontal line) with an electric shock – Much more connections

2 TYPES OF LEARNING • Associative Learning: • Making an association between two events • Snail associates water splash w/shocks • Specific food & illness • Classical conditioning • Or an association between behavior & consequence • Seal receives a snack for balancing ball • Speeding -> Ticket

2 TYPES OF LEARNING 2. Observational Learning : ü Learning by imitating or modeling other’s behavior

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Making an association between 2 events because of prior experience • Leads to a change in behavior • Consider some examples: • Specific foods & illness • Food is associated w/nausea • Leads to an avoidance of the food

CLASSIC CONDITIONING • Dentist’s office & Pain • Dentist is associated with pain • Avoidance of dentist • Cherry Candle & Fear • Cherry candle burning while playing a scary game • Pretty soon just smelling cherry candle produces fear • Rarely occurs at a conscious level • How do we know about this type of learning?

IVAN PAVLOV & HIS DISCOVERY • Pavlov was a Russian physiologist (1849 -1936) • Wanted to understand digestion • Salivation responses in dogs • Surgically implanted device to measure saliva

IVAN PAVLOV’S DISCOVERY • Pavlov then presented a stimulus (meat powder) • Food enters mouth • Results in natural production of saliva • Pavlov noticed something strange • Dogs salivated to other stimuli (besides food in the mouth) • Mere sight of Pavlov • Sight of the food dish • Drawer where meat powder was kept

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Changed Pavlov’s course of study – Began to investigate how other stimuli could cause dogs to salivate – First systematic study of learning • Called classical conditioning – Hungry dog hears a bell – Dog is then given meat powder – Salivation results – Process is repeated – Eventually dog salivates in response to bell (w/o meat powder)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • The dogs learned that the sound of the bell signaled the presentation of food • So they salivated before food was presented • Let’s take a closer look the key elements of the classical conditioning

Term Definition Example Unconditioned A stimulus that elicits an Stimulus (UCS) unlearned response/reflex Meat (causes dogs to salivate) Neutral Stimulus (NS) A stimulus that does not elicit an unlearned response/reflex A bell (does not cause salivation) Unconditioned Response (UCR) An unlearned response, or a reflex reaction Salivation at meat (automatic/reflex) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A stimulus that elicits a response only after it is associated w/a UCS The bell (after repeated pairings w/ meat) elicits a response Conditioned A learned response to a Response (CR) conditioned stimulus Salivating at the Bell

THE PROCESS 1. UCS UCR 2. UCS NS UCR 3. CS CR

WHY ARE SALIVATING DOGS IMPORTANT? • Reveals how we learn many things (associations in E) • Taste aversions, fears • Ex : Fear Conditioning (e. g. , phobias) • Little Albert and fear of rats (45 s) • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Xt 0 ucx. Or. PQE Loud Noise Fear Response

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PRACTICE • In the previous example: • What was the UCS? What was the UCR? • (loud noise; fear response) • What was the NS? • (white rat) • What is the CS and the CR? • (white rat; fear response) • Any Q’s about this?

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE • A cat gets fed wet food • Whenever the cat is given food it meows • Cat begins to associate being fed w/ can opener • Now, whenever you get the can opener out and use it the cat meows • What is the UCS? What is the UCR? – (wet food; meow) • What is the NS? – (can opener) • What is the CS and the CR? – (can opener; meow)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING FUNNIES • https: //vimeo. com/357549 24

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES • Stimulus Generalization: • A tendency to respond to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) AS WELL AS to other similar stimuli – In the case of Little Albert, he was scared of many little white furry things (e. g. , rabbits, cotton balls, even a Santa beard)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES • Stimulus Discrimination: • A tendency to respond ONLY to specific stimuli • After many experiences of things like white beards, hares, and cotton balls w/o the UCS (loud noise) Albert would have learned to discriminate

OPERANT CONDITIONING • Operant Conditioning: associating a behavior w/ it’s consequences • Seal gets a snack (consequence) for balancing the ball (behavior) • You get a ticket (consequence) for speeding (behavior)

OPERANT CONDITIONING HISTORY • Edward Thorndike – 1 st psychologist to study operant conditioning (circa 1911) –Animals learn to make voluntary responses that help them adapt to their environment –If a behavior is rewarded it increases, if it is punished it decreases

OPERANT CONDITIONING HISTORY • To test this, he designed a device called a puzzle box • Hungry cats locked inside • Placed a bowl of food on the outside of box • Must learn to pull the string for release to get to food • Cats first did a lot of behaviors • However, they quickly learned which behavior got them out of the box

Operant Conditioning History • Thorndike named this the • Law of Effect: • behavior will be strengthened if it is reinforced (food for tripping the latch), and behavior will be weakened if it is punished • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=fanm--Wy. QJo • Just watch first 10 -15 seconds (no audio)

OPERANT CONDITIONING HISTORY • B. F. Skinner (a behaviorist: only observable behavior should be studied) took Thorndike’s ideas and built on them • Probably, one of the best known figures in learning • Skinner studied operant learning for many decades at Harvard University, often using animals (e. g. , rats, pigeons) • Skinner used a special box called a “Skinner Box” to study how we learn by punishment or reinforcement

OPERANT CONDITIONING IN A SKINNER BOX • A hungry rat is placed in the box • Inside is a lever and a food dispenser • Rat examines surroundings • As it explores, it approaches the lever • When rat is near the lever, a food pellet is delivered

OPERANT CONDITIONING • Keep doing this, until you are giving food when rat presses bar • Now, rat spends most of times hanging out near lever • With time, lever pressing increases • Rat is reinforced (given food) for a certain behavior (pressing a bar) • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=PQt. DTd. Dr 8 vs

OPERANT CONDITIONING CONSEQUENCES • Operant conditioning stresses the effect of consequences on behavior • Two Types • Reinforcement: • A stimulus which strengthens (increases) the behavior it follows • Punishment: • Type A stimulus which weakens (decreases) the behavior it Consequence Effect on behavior follows Behavior Reinforcement Study Good Grades Tendency to study increases Punishment Running in the street Parent gives spanking Tendency to run in the street decreases

REINFORCEMENT • Reinforcement • a stimulus that strengthens (increases) the behavior it follows • Food for lever pressing Two types: 1. Positive 2. Negative •

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT • Any stimulus added (given) after a behavior which increases that behavior in the future – You are always adding something here – If you are good at the Dr’s office, I will give you a piece of candy • Increases good behavior at the Dr’s office – A lot of behavior is learned through positive reinforcement

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT • Any aversive stimulus removed (taken away) which increases that behavior in the future • You are always removing something here to increase behavior • Headache is taken away by taking aspirin • Will likely take aspirin in the future • Loud noise is taken away by pounding on the neighbor’s wall • Will likely pound on neighbor’s wall again • Anxiety is taken away by deep breathing

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT (CONT. ) • It’s easy to get confused about negative reinforcement • Let’s go back to Skinner’s experiments & try to understand negative reinforcement a little better • A rat is placed in a Skinner box

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT (CONT. ) • The floor is a metal grid which can deliver shocks • A mild shock is activated • As the rat tries to escape the box, it hits the lever and the shock stops • The shock is taken away when the rat presses the lever • Increases the probability the rat will press the lever in the future

PUNISHMENT • Punishment is also a widely used type of consequence • Consider these examples: • Spanking a misbehaving child • Staying after school • Traffic fines & incarceration

PUNISHMENT • A stimulus which decreases (weakens) a response in the future • Punishers can also be positive or negative • Remember positive = adding something • Remember negative = removing something

PUNISHMENT • Positive Punishment: Adding something to decrease behavior in future • Giving your child a spanking to decrease misbehavior • Negative Punishment: Taking away something to decrease behavior in the future • Taking away Car privileges to decrease misbehavior

Reinforcement Punishment Increase Behavior + Stimulus Positive Reinforceme nt Negative Reinforceme nt Positive Punishment Negative Punishment Decrease Behavior

LET’S PRACTICE IDENTIFYING TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES • My 10 year old son will not clean his room • So, I do this each day he has a dirty room: 1. No TV 2. Has to mow the lawn – Punishment or Reinforcement? – Positive or Negative? • When he cleans his room I: 3. Take away the no TV rule 4. Give him a $1 – Punishment or Reinforcement? – Positive or Negative? • Answers on Next Slide!

ANSWERS 1. Negative Punishment – Remember, I want to decrease dirty room behavior in the future! 2. Positive Punishment 3. Negative Reinforcement – Remember, I want to increase clean room behavior in the future! 4. Positive Reinforcement

PUNISHMENT (CONT. ) Advantages and Disadvantages Problems w/ punishment: 1. Not very effective in the long term if it is not reliably paired with the stimulus – – For example, a child will suppress the urge to get in the cookie jar when reliably punished However, if she finds she can get in the cookie jar and not be punished she will likely do it again

PROBLEMS W/ PUNISHMENT (CONT. ) 2. Can cause emotional side effects ü Fear ü When child is punished severely for many things the child may come to fear the parent ü Or the child that is punished at school, may learn to fear or dislike going to school Physical discipline (e. g. , slapping or spanking) may lead to aggression – Parent models that aggressive behavior is a way to get what they want – Children that are spanked are often more physically aggressive than those who are not

ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT • Although reinforcement is usually preferable, punishment may sometimes be the only option to decrease future undesired behavior • Punishment can be a quite powerful controller of behavior when applied correctly – Your child running in the road w/ cars coming • Punishment works best when it is immediate & consistent – Spanking right after child runs in road – Always spanking when child runs in the road – Punishment should be “swift and sure”

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING • This is the second basic type of learning • Learning by observing & modeling others • Many species model • Humans model early & often • Infants imitate faces • 9 months: Play behavior • 14 months: Complex acts

MIRROR NEURONS • Neurons that activate when observing others • Mimic speech, facial expressions • Activity of these neurons is linked w/Empathy (~ same neural activity as pain) • Observational learning is hard-wired in our brain

BANDURA & SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • Albert Bandura • Theory that emphasizes the role of observational learning • The Bobo doll studies (1960’s): • Children observed adults beating on a inflatable Bobo doll or playing peacefully • The children were then placed in a similar situation • Children who observed the aggressive behavior were more likely to act aggressively • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Pr 0 OT CVt. Hb. U&feature=related

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING • This theory suggests that: • Watching antisocial models may contribute to antisocial behavior • What do you think? • Do violent videogames cause us to imitate violent behavior?

THE BRAIN & LEARNING • Recall, learning changes your brain (adds more connections between neurons) • However, we have yet to observe the cellular changes that are happening in humans. (our NS is much too complex) • So, how do we know this?

THE BRAIN AND LEARNING • Scientists have turned to very simple organisms (like sea snails) to understand what is happening at a cellular level when learning takes place • The synapses of the sea snail (aplysia) have been well studied during the learning process • How does this work?

HOW DO YOU TEACH A SNAIL? • Aplysia demonstrates a gill withdrawal response when touched • Aplysia’s that have been previously shocked have learned to be on guard – Demonstrates a longer withdrawal response • Researchers then study the cellular changes that happen in aplysia • Chemical changes in the connections between neurons – Synaptic facilitation (STM) – Long Term Potentiation (LTM) – A memorable snail: • http: //www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/body/aplysia-memory. html • http: //www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/body/how-memory-works. html

SUMMARY • Learning • Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • Observational Learning • Biological Basis