LEARNING A systematic relatively permanent change in behavior

LEARNING • A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. • 2 types: 1. Associative learning: occurs when we make a connection between two events. • Classical and Operant Conditioning • Conditioning: the process of learning associations. 2. Observational learning: occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior.

OPERANT CONDITIONING • A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of a behavior’s occurrence. • Also called instrumental learning • Active process; behaviors occur spontaneously; the learner decides whether or not to repeat behavior based on the consequence • Voluntary behavior • Keywords: behavior, consequences • Important people: • Thorndike • Skinner

THE LAW OF EFFECT • Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898) • Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside • Cat’s used ‘trial and error’ to escape box and get food • Voluntary behavior changes because of its consequences: • Pleasant consequences strengthen behavior • Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior • Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

B. F. SKINNER • Burrhus Frederic Skinner • American psychologist • Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning • Developed the Skinner Box to test his concepts • Used rodents and pigeons • “Free will is an illusion!”

SKINNER BOX • Originally known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber • Used to control experimental conditions • Has a lever or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer such as food or water • The lever or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response

ABC’S OF BEHAVIOR

CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement Punishment • A reinforcer is anything • A punisher is anything that INCREASES a that DECREASES a behavior. • + Positive Reinforcement • + Positive Punishment • Addition of something pleasant. unpleasant. • - Negative Reinforcement • - Negative Punishment • Removal of something unpleasant. • Two types: • Escape Learning • Avoidance Learning

CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement • Positive Reinforcement • Example: • Getting money for grades • Getting a sticker for good behavior • Negative Reinforcement • Example: • Taking aspirin to get rid of a headache • Skipping class vs. getting kicked out of class Punishment • Positive Punishment • Example: • Getting a spanking • Getting a speeding ticket • Negative Punishment • Example: • Having your phone taken away • Going to jail

CONTINGENCY • Contingency: means that the behavior must serves as a reliable indicator that the consequence is on its way.

SHAPING • Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. • Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior. • To train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce these small steps: • First, to find the slippers • Then, to put the slippers in his mouth • Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth • Last, to bring the slippers to you

PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS • Primary Reinforcer: • Innate value • Things that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological drives such as food, water, sleep, sex • Secondary Reinforcer: • Learned/Conditioned value • Things that we learn are reinforcing such as money, grades

TOKEN ECONOMY • Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired rewards. • Tokens: poker chips, fake money/coins, stickers, tickets… • Based on applied behavior analysis (ABA): the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. • Also called behavior modification • Emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement to change behavior

ACQUISITION • The association is made between the behavior and the consequence. • Learning occurs when the learner becomes aware that the behavior has been reinforced or punished (consequence).

GENERALIZATION & DISCRIMINATION Generalization: • Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. • Same behavior different situation Discrimination: • Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will not be reinforced. • Different behavior for different situations

EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY • Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced. • Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior suddenly resumes after extinction.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT • Continuous Reinforcement: • Reinforces the desired behavior every time it occurs. • Learned quickly; easy to extinguish • Examples: • Using a token to ride the subway. • Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or soda. • Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: • Reinforces the desired behavior only part of the time. • Slower acquisition; harder to extinguish

RATIO SCHEDULES • Fixed-ratio schedule: • Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors. • Example: • Workers paid per 100 envelops stuffed • Getting to leave class after a multiple choice test. • *Variable-ratio schedule: • Reinforcement after a varying (unpredictable) number of behaviors. • Examples: • Playing a slot machine • Fishing/hunting

INTERVAL SCHEDULES • Fixed-interval schedule: • Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed. • Examples: • Getting a paycheck every two weeks • Scheduled exams • Variable-interval schedule: • Reinforcement of the first behavior after varying (unpredictable) amounts of time has passed. • Example: • POP Quizzes • Arrival of mail

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Variableratio schedule Fixedinterval schedule Variableinterval schedule Reinforcement Schedules Compared Response Rate Pattern of Responses Very high Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio. Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no pauses Resistance to Extinction The higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction. Most resistance to extinction. Lowest response rate Long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration. The longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction. Moderate Stable, uniform response. More resistance to extinction than fixed- interval schedule with same average interval.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

IMMEDIATE & DELAYED REINFORCEMENT • Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs immediately after a behavior. • More effective for lower animals • Example: • A rat gets a food pellet when it presses a lever. • Delayed Reinforcement: A reinforcer that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior. • Has an effect on human behavior • Example: • A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

IMMEDIATE & DELAYED PUNISHMENT • Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately after a behavior. • More effective for lower animals *Punishment works best when it is immediate and harsh! • Delayed Punishment: A punisher that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior. • Has an effect on human behavior

DELAYED GRATIFICATION • The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward and wait for a larger delayed reward. • Immediate & mildly valued vs. delayed & highly valued • Also called deferred gratification • Example: • We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying. • Studied by Walter Mischel • The Marshmallow Test • Results found that delayed gratification correlated to: • Higher SAT scores • higher levels of competence reported by parents & teachers • Lower rates of substance abuse

MOTIVATION • Extrinsic Motivation: • The desire to perform a behavior due to external incentives such as rewards and punishments. • Intrinsic Motivation: • The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, based on internal factors such as needs and fun.

OVERJUSTIFICATION • Occurs when extrinsic motivation decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a behavior or participate in an activity. • When you pay more attention to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that you receive from performing a behavior or activity. • Examples: • A painter may not paint for pleasure when she is accustomed to being paid for her work. • Losing interest in playing the violin after your mother promises to pay you for each hour of practice. • Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the rewards are terminated, children spent significantly less time playing the games than they had before they

PREMACK PRINCIPLE • Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement for less preferred behaviors. • Preferred: behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic value/occur more often • Using an activity that is pleasurable to reward an activity that is less pleasurable. • Examples: • You have to clean your room before you watch TV • You have to do your homework before you can go to the movies

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS • An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes. • Studied by Martin Seligman (1967) • Dogs shocked for prolonged period of time would stop attempting to escape, even when given the opportunity to do so. • Has implications in depression.