Last Class in Review Attitudes A relatively stable
• Last Class in Review Attitudes: – A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and opinions about people, groups, ideas, and activities • • • Implicit (unconscious) vs. Explicit (conscious) Factors that change our attitudes Group influences on behavior – Conformity – Groupthink – The anonymous crowd • • Diffusion of responsibility (bystander apathy, social loafing, deindividuation) Why do people go against conformity and stand up for beliefs? – Dissent and Altruism • Group Identity – Social identity: gives us a sense of our place in the world – Ethnic identity vs. Acculturation • Ways to balance the conflict: 1. 2. 3. 4. Bicultural Assimilation Ethnic Separatists Marginal – Ethnocentrism • • • Robber’s Cave Stereotypes Prejudice – Explicit vs. Implicit • How do we measure implicit prejudice – How can we reduce prejudice? • Group exercise: Chapter 10 review questions
Learning Objectives 1. What are the 3 elements that make up the structure of personality, according to Freud? What happens when conflicts are not resolved at a given stage? 2. What are 6 common defense mechanisms? Be able to identify examples of each. 3. What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development? 4. What is the difference between the Jungian theory and Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory? 5. What is the collective unconscious? What are archetypes? 6. What is most important in the Object-Relations Theory? 7. What are the 3 major shortcomings of psychodynamic theories? 8. What do the humanistic approaches to personality focus on?
chapter 2 Definitions Personality Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual Trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling • shy, outgoing, ambitious, lazy, easy-going, anal, highstrung, confident, grumpy, happy, friendly, etc
chapter 2 Theories of Personality Psychodynamic Theories Biological Theories Environmental Psychology Theories Cultural Psychology Theories Humanistic Theories
chapter 2 Psychodynamic theories Sigmund Freud – psychoanalysis Explains behavior and personality in terms of unconscious dynamics within the individual • Emphasizes internal conflicts, attachments, and motivations • Adult personalities are formed by experiences in early childhood • Three variations: • Freud and traditional psychoanalysis • Jungian Theory • Object-Relations School
chapter 2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis: The structure of personality 1. Id - Unconscious 2. Ego - unconscious, preconscious, conscious 3. Superego - unconscious, preconscious, conscious
chapter 2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis: The ID Operates according to the pleasure principle –Present from birth –Primitive • basic needs and wants – 2 competing instincts: • Life (sexual) - libido • Death (aggressive) –Unconscious
chapter 2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis: The Ego Operates according to the reality principle – Arises in first 3 years of life –Mediates between ID and Superego –Rational part of mind • you can’t always get what you want – Floats between all 3 levels of consciousness
chapter 2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis: The Superego Moral Conscience – Develops around age 5 • At end of Phallic Stage –Stores and enforces rules • Inner voice that tells you not to do something or that what you did was wrong – 2 subsystems: • Ego Ideal = parents approve/value • Conscience = parents disapproval
chapter 2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis: Defense mechanisms 1. Repression • 2. Projection • 3. • When a feeling or belief that causes anxiety is transformed into the opposite feeling or belief in our consciousness Regression • 6. When a person’s emotions are directed towards people or animals that are not the real object of the emotion Sublimation: acting out socially unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way Reaction formation • 5. When repressed feelings are attributed to someone else Displacement • 4. When a threatening idea, memory, or emotion is blocked (either consciously or unconsciously) from consciousness Returning to a previous stage of development Denial • Refusal to admit something unpleasant or that something that provokes anxiety is happening
chapter 2 Your turn Your math instructor caught you with the textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that you know he knows you were cheating, you protest your innocence. This defense mechanism is: 1. Denial 2. Reaction formation 3. Regression 4. Displacement
chapter 2 Personality development: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Fixation occurs when the conflicts at a given stage aren’t resolved successfully Freud’s Psychosexual Stages 1. Oral (birth – 18 months) • • 2. Anal (18 months – 3 years) • • • 3. Pleasure zone is the genitals Oedipus complex – development of feelings for opposite sex parent and rivalry feelings towards same sex parent – Boys – fear of castration; Girls – penis envy Latency (6 – puberty) • 5. Control of eliminating and retaining feces, toilet training issues Anal retentive – obsession with cleanliness, perfection, control Anal expulsive – messy, disorganized Phallic (Oedipal; 3 – 5 or 6 years) • • 4. Babies learn about the world with their mouths, oral pleasures Oral fixation – preoccupation with oral activities as an adult Sexual urges repressed, play with same sex peers Genital (puberty on) • Leads to adult sexuality
chapter 2 Other psychodynamic approaches 1. Jungian theory 2. The Object-Relations School
chapter 2 Jungian Theory (aka analytical psychology) Carl Jung (1875 -1961) Divides unconscious into 2 parts: Personal unconscious: reservoir of personal information and memories that was once conscious, but has been forgotten or suppressed and is unique to the individual Collective unconscious: deepest level of the human psyche that contains universal memories, symbols, and experiences of all humans • a reservoir of inherited experiences • Archetype: a generic, idealized model of a person, personality or behavior – Innate, universal prototypes – Appear in myths, stories, art, and dreams
chapter 2 Jungian Theory (aka analytical psychology) • Archetype: a generic, idealized model of a person, personality or behavior • Stereotype, epitome • 4 main archetypes: – – The The Self Shadow Anima Animus • Commonly seen archetypes – The Child – The Hero – The Great Mother
chapter 2 Object-Relations School Melanie Klein & D. W. Winnicott Emphasizes interpersonal relationships and believes the egoself exists only in relation to other objects Ø most important = mother-child relationship • Central problem = balance between need for independence and need for others • Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with mother Object: Something to which the subject relates, usually a person, a part of a person or symbols for these. External object: an actual person, place, or thing Internal object: a memory, idea, or fantasy about a person place or thing
chapter 2 Evaluating psychodynamic theories Three scientific failings: 1. Violating the principle of falsifiability 2. Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients 3. Basing theories of personality development on retrospective accounts and the fallible memories of patients
chapter 2 Humanistic Approaches to Personality Humanistic psychology An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential Humanist psychologists: 1. Abraham Maslow 2. Carl Rogers 3. Rollo May
chapter 2 Humanistic Psychology: Abraham Maslow Personality development is a gradual progression to self-actualization
chapter 2 Your turn You are on your way to a restaurant to meet some friends, and you are hungry. As you are walking from your car to the restaurant, you are looking forward to talking with your friends. Just then, you hear a gunshot. According to Maslow, your primary motivation would be determined by 1. Your hunger 2. Your desire to converse with your friends 3. Your desire for safety
chapter 2 Humanistic Psychology: Carl Rogers Interested in fully functioning individuals Congruence this is displayed by fully functioning people and is a harmony between the image they project to others and their true feelings or wishes To become fully functioning we need: –Unconditional positive regard A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is unqualified, no strings attached Unfortunately many children and adults are treated with: –Conditional positive regard A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent upon one’s behavior
chapter 2 Evaluating humanist approaches The bad: 1. Assumptions are not testable 2. Hard to operationally define many of the concepts The good: 1. Added balance to the study of personality 2. Encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology” 3. Fostered new appreciation for resilience
Last Class in Review • Personality: Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual • Trait: A characteristic of an individual • Psychodynamic Theories of Personality: – Freud’s Psychoanalysis • Id, Ego, Superego • Defense mechanisms of the Ego: – Repression, projection, displacement, reaction formation, regression, denial • Psychosexual Stages – Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital – Jungian Theory – Object-Relations School
Learning Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What are the Big Five personality dimensions currently favored by personality researchers? What are temperaments and how are they related to personality traits? What does heritability refer to? What is reciprocal determinism? How does the environment influence personality? What is the non-shared environment? What are 3 lines of evidence that suggest parents have a minor influence on the development of their children’s personality? How does culture influence personality? What the main differences between an individualistic and collectivist culture?
chapter 2 Measuring Personality: Objective tests (inventories) Standardized questionnaires asking a series of questions where people rate themselves – Typically include scales – Assumes that you can accurately report – No right or wrong answers The responses help develop picture of you called a personality profile 2 common tests: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ)
Allport’s Trait Theory Gordon Allport (1897 -1967) 1. Cardinal Trait • Dominates and shapes personality, rare 2. Central Trait • Basic building blocks of personality that everyone has to some degree 3. Secondary Trait • Only seen in certain circumstances
Raymond Cattell 1905 -1998 16 Personality Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Warmth Reasoning Emotional Stability Dominance Liveliness Rule-consciousness Social Boldness Sensitivity Vigilance Abstractedness Privateness Apprehension Openness to change Self-reliance Perfectionism Tension
chapter 2 Personality Traits: The Big Five 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Openness to experience • Open = Curiosity, imaginative, creative • Resistant = Conforming, predictable Conscientiousness • Conscientious = Responsible, persevering, self-disciplined • Impulsive = Quick to give up, fickle, careless Extroversion • Extroversion = Outgoing – talkative, sociable, adventurous • Introversion = Shy – silent, reclusive, cautious Agreeableness • Agreeable = Good-natured, cooperative, secure • Antagonistic = Irritable, abrasive, suspicious, jealous Neuroticism • Neurotic = anxious, impulsive, worrier, emotionally negative • Emotionally stable = only has those feelings when the circumstances dictate
Genetic Influences on Personality • Nature vs. Nurture debate – Nature: Biology/genetics determines personality – Nurture: Experiences determines personality – Not mutually exclusive • Biology and experience interact and shape our personalities together • How can biology influence our personality? – Genes: functional units of heredity, composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins • Specify how the brain and nervous systems should develop and function – Influence the behaviors that make up our personality
How do psychologists measure genetic contributions to personality? 1. Studying personality traits in other species 2. Studying temperaments of infants and children 3. Heritability studies in twins and adopted individuals
Personality Traits in Other Species • Examine the physiology, genetics, ecology and ethology of animals • Evidence of 4 of the Big Five traits in 64 different species – monkeys dogs octopi – Conscientiousness has only been found in humans • Puppy Personality Experiment (Gosling, 2003) – Owners provided personality assessments of dogs and themselves – A person who knew them both filled out a personality inventory – Independent observers rated the dogs in a park Ý All 3 ratings were very similar
chapter 2 Personality Traits in Infants and Children Temperaments Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways • Present in infancy, assumed to be innate • Relatively stable over time Temperaments: 1. Easy/Flexible: positive disposition, curious about new situations, adaptable, low-moderate emotional intensity 40% of babies 2. Difficult/Feisty: negative moods, slow to adapt to new situations 10 % of babies 3. Slow-to-Warm: inactive, calm reactions to environment, negative moods and withdraw from new situations, adapt slowly 15 % of babies 35 % have babies have combination of characteristics and can’t be categorized
chapter 2 Dimension of Temperament 1. Activity level 2. Approach-Withdrawal 3. Adaptability 4. Quality of Mood 5. Attention span and persistence 6. Distractibility 7. Rhythmicity (regularity) 8. Intensity of reaction 9. Threshold of responsiveness Definition Proportion of active to inactive time The response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts or withdraws from the situation How easily the child is able to adapt to changes in his or her environment The contrast of the amount of friendly, joyful, and pleasant behavior with unpleasant, unfriendly behavior The amount of the time a child devotes to an activity and the effect of distraction on that activity The degree to which stimuli in the environment alters behavior The regularity of basic functions, such as hunger, excretion, sleep and wakefulness The energy level or reaction of the child’s response The intensity of stimulation needed to elicit a response
chapter 2 The Heritability of Personality Traits Heritability a statistical estimate of how much variation in a trait can be attributed to genetics within a given population • 0 – 1. 0 – 0. 5 = 50 % of the variation in a personality trait can be attributed to genetics – 1. 0 = 100 % of the variation in a personality trait can be attributed to genetics Heritability of personality traits is about 0. 5 Within a group of people, about 50% of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group. Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability
chapter 2 The Heritability of Personality Traits How is heritability studied? – Adoption studies • Compare correlations between traits of children and their biological and adoptive parents – Twin Studies • Identical twins = share 100 % of genes • Fraternal twins = share about ½ genes, just like regular siblings • Compare same-sex groups of identical and fraternal twins • Look at personality traits in adopted identical and fraternal twins
Environmental Influences on Personality Traits 1. Situational Influences (social learning) 2. Parental Influences 3. Social circles (peer pressure)
Situational Influences: Social Learning • Behaviorist view: – Behaviors are rewarded and punished differently in different situations • Social-cognitive view: – Personality traits result from a person’s learning history and their expectations, beliefs, perceptions of events and other cognitions – Reciprocal (mutual) determinism
chapter 2 Situational Influences: Reciprocal Determinism Two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
chapter 2 Situational Influences: Non-shared environment Unique aspects of a person’s environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
chapter 2 Parental Influences Parental child-rearing practices have a strong influence on who we become, but research has shown that it is not the primary determinant: 1. The shared environment of the home has little influence on personality. • The non-shared environment is a more important influence. 2. Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all children. 3. Even when parents try to be consistent, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out.
chapter 2 Parental Influences Nevertheless, parents still do influence their children in a number of ways: • • Religious beliefs and values Intellectual and occupational interests, skills Feelings of self-esteem or inadequacy Degree of helpfulness Influence on traits that are highly heritable: • • Aggressiveness Shyness
chapter 2 Social Influence: Peer Pressure How many of you have behaved differently around your parents that you do your friends? Adolescent culture: • different peer groups, organized by different interests, ethnicity and status Peer acceptance is so important to children and adolescents that being bullied, victimized, or rejected by peers is far more traumatic than punitive treatment by parents.
chapter 2 Cultural Influences on Personality Culture A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community Individualist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others Collectivist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes
chapter 2 Cultural Influence on Personality Individualistic Cultures Collectivist Cultures Define self as autonomous, independent of groups Define self as an interdependent part of a group Give priority to individual, personal goals Give priority to needs and goals of group Value independence, leadership, achievement Value group harmony, duty, obligation, security Give more weight to individual’s attitudes and preferences, than to group norms to explain behavior Give more weight to group norms than individual attitudes to explain behavior Attend to the benefits and costs of relationships; if costs exceed advantages, a person is likely to drop a relationship Attend to needs of group members; if relationship is beneficial to group, but costly to individual, the individual is likely to stay in the relationship
chapter 2 Cultural Influences in Personality When culture is not appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behavior to personality. • Timeliness • Personal Space
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