Landscape Ecology 26102021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 4 Landscape
- Slides: 63
Landscape Ecology 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 4
Landscape ecology • Landscape ecology addresses the importance of spatial configuration for ecological processes. • Landscape ecology often focuses on spatial extents that are much larger than those traditionally studied in ecology. landscape ecology evolved from ecosystem ecology! 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 5
Landscape processes • Spatial pattern and heterogeneity matter!! – Biogeochemical hot spots – Patch interactions 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 6
Two aspects of spatial heterogeneity • Gradients or series of gradients which has gradual variation over space – No boundaries – No corridors – No patches • Mosaics where there are distinct boundaries 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 7
Properties of patches • • • Size Shape Connectivity Boundaries Configuration 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 8
Causes of heterogeneity • 1. State factors – Climatic gradients – Geologic boundaries – Topographic patterns 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 9
Causes of heterogeneity • 1. State factors • 2. Historical legacies – Founder effects • species influence ecosystem processes • May reflect stochastic patterns of colonization – Historical land-use patterns 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 10
Much of the Fairbanks region was clear-cut during the Gold Rush 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 11
Causes of heterogeneity • 1. State factors • 2. Historical legacies • 3. Disturbance – – Disturbance can create patches of different ages Some disturbances are huge and/or infrequent Natural disturbances such as fire Human activity such as plowing fields and building roads. . Alter natural pattern of heterogeneity and patch dynamics 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 12
Causes of heterogeneity • • 1. State factors 2. Historical legacies 3. Disturbance 4. Interactions among sources of heterogeneity 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 13
Shifting steady-state mosaic • Disturbance creates patches of different ages • Landscape may be in steady state – Gap phase succession – Gopher patches in grassland • Every spot disturbed every 3 -5 yr – Age of rainforest trees only 80 -140 yr • Primary forest 1000 s of years old 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 14
Steady-state landscape mosaic 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 15 Gunderson and Holling 2002
Impact of disturbance depends on: Size Frequency 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 16
Non-steady-state mosaics • Some disturbances are huge and/or infrequent • Create large patches of a single age – Yellowstone Park fires • Not in equilibrium with environment • Continuum between steady-state and non-steady-state mosaics 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 17
Human disturbances • Alter natural pattern of heterogeneity and patch dynamics 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 18
Shifting agriculture Steady-state mosaic with long rotations Non-steady-state mosaic with short rotations 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 19
Interactions among sources of heterogeneity • Disturbance probability depends on – Landscape heterogeneity – Previous disturbance history • Negative feedbacks: reduced disturbance probability – Effect of fire on fire probability – Pathogen outbreaks: waves of disturbance 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 20
Root pathogens initiate succession Increase nitrogen availability Reduce probability of pathogen outbreak 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 21
Interactions among sources of heterogeneity • Disturbance probability depends on – Landscape heterogeneity – Previous disturbance history • Negative feedbacks: reduced disturbance probability • Positive feedback: increased disturbance probability – Effect of fire on insect outbreaks or logging » Fire increases probability of insects or logging » Makes landscape structure less predictable 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 22
Interactions among sources of heterogeneity • Disturbance probability depends on – Landscape heterogeneity – Previous disturbance history – Human impacts • Roads increase probability of land-use change – Best single predictor of land-use change • Landscape heterogeneity influence human impact 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 23
Topographic heterogeneity influences human impact Plains are converted to high-intensity agriculture Uplands are mosaic of subsistence farming Black: Natural Gray: Grazed White: Croplands Northern 26/10/2021 Argentina Landscape Ecology Matsinos 24
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • Topography and land-water interactions – Gravitational redistribution • Landslides and erosion • Transfers to aquatic ecosystems – Influence of landscape pattern • Role of riparian zone 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 25
Gravity determines direction of flow: donor vs. recipient Nature of patch determines importance in transfers Riparian zones are important filters configuration: between uplands and streams function: high plant uptake and denitrification 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 26
Nitrogen inputs to major rivers determine nitrogen outputs Most nitrogen that enters a river is carried to ocean Little denitrification or other losses 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 27
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • Topographic and land-water interactions – Gravitational redistribution – Influence of landscape pattern – Properties of recipient ecosystems • Riparian ecosystems • Lakes on a topographic gradient 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 28
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • 1. Topographic and land-water interactions • 2. Atmospheric Transfers – Natural patterns • Transfers of gases (e. g. , NH 3) • Dust transfer 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 29
Atmospheric transport Trace gases and dust produced in one place are transported and deposited downwind 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 30
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • 1. Topographic and land-water interactions • 2. Atmospheric Transfers – Natural patterns – Human impacts swamp natural transfers • Acid rain • Ammonia from fertilized fields and stockyards • Dust deposition from agricultural lands 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 31
Acid rain Ecosystems are remarkably resilient to N deposition Eventually reach N saturation Begin to leak N and cations NPP declines Susceptible to other stresses 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 32
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • 1. Topographic and land-water interactions • 2. Atmospheric Transfers – Natural patterns – Human impacts swamp natural transfers • • 26/10/2021 Acid rain Ammonia from fertilized fields and stockyards Dust deposition from agricultural lands Altered energy exchange Landscape Ecology Matsinos 33
Clearing for agriculture in W. Australia altered climate 30% less ppt over farmlands 10% more ppt over heathlands Why? 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 34 Photo: S. Chambers
Land clearing changes energy balance Higher albedo (less energy absorbed) More ET from irrigation (cools surface) Less sensible heat (less convective uplift) 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 35
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • 1. Topographic and land-water interactions • 2. Atmospheric Transfers • 3. Movements of plants and animals – Sheep carry nutrients to hilltops where they camp – Salmon carry marine nutrients to streams • Anadromous strategy is concentrated at high latitudes – 26/10/2021 People transport nutrients to fields and cities Landscape Ecology Matsinos 36
Horizontal flows produce patterns Transfer of nutrients by animals produces spatial patterns in nutrient pools and cycling rates and influences productivity. 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 37
Mammalian herbivores use multiple patches in landscape Alter ecosystem structure Speed nutrient cycling Speed succession by removing early successional species ALDER : WILLOW RATIO 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 BROWSED 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos UNBROWSED 38
Mechanisms of Patch Interaction • • 1. Topographic and land-water interactions 2. Atmospheric Transfers 3. Movements of plants and animals 4. Disturbance spread 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 39
Disturbance Dynamics CLIMATE Carbon Dynamics Lightning Thermokarst Harvest regime Fire regime Forest Dynamics Landscape structure Hydrologic regime 26/10/2021 Aquatic systems Landscape Ecology Matsinos 40
Fires occur frequently in the boreal forest 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 41
Fire is a major agent of patch interactions in landscapes 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 42
Fire size important • Distance to seed source (e. g. , white spruce) • Size of future fires • Carrying capacity for edge species (e. g. , deer) • Spread of pests and pathogens 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 43
Human activities are now the largest cause of changes in landscape heterogeneity • Change natural vegetation from being the “matrix” to being the “patch” • Can’t understand landscape processes without considering human activities – People are integral components of regional systems 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 44
Conversion of natural vegetation from “matrix” to “patch” Black patches are natural or semi-natural veg Gray patches have been modified by grazing White patches are agricultural fields Northern Argentina 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 45
Human activities • Two general categories of land-use change – Extensification • Expansion of area used by people – Intensification • Increased inputs (subsidies) per unit area 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 46
Extensification • Two categories of extensification – 1. Land-use conversion • Change in dominant plant functional type (PFT) • e. g. , forest to pasture; savanna to agriculture – 2. Land-use modification • Significant human impact without change in PFT • e. g. , low-intensity to high-intensity agriculture; cattle grazing on savannas 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 47
Extensification • 1. Land-use conversion – Deforestation is widespread in tropics • Most primary tropical forests (largest biome on Earth) will disappear in your lifetime • Also occurs in boreal Canada and Russia (second largest biome on Earth) – Reforestation in temperate zone • Agricultural abandonment after earlier deforestation 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 48
Extensification • 1. Land-use conversion – Deforestation is widespread in tropics – Reforestation in temperate zone – Conversion of savannas to agriculture • This has already happened • (Ukraine, midwestern U. S. , pampas) – Urbanization will continue to increase • Most people will live in cities – often in best agricultural lands 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 49
Conversion to agriculture causes loss of half of soil carbon within a few decades 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 50
Extensification • 1. Land-use conversion • 2. Land-use modification – (most widespread human impact) – Grazing and burning of grasslands – Expansion of marine fisheries 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 51
Intensification • Agriculture – Addition of fertilizers and pesticides – Runoff to aquatic ecosystems • Aquaculture – Fish farming – Shrimp farming 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 52
Spatial and temporal scaling are essential to understand the global consequences of changes in ecosystems • Study plots are a miniscule proportion of globe • Want to project results back and forward in time 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 53
Dominant controls over ecosystem processes depend on temporal scale 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 54
The dominant controls over ecosystem processes change with temporal and spatial scale 1. Rapid, small-scale processes provide mechanism of larger-scale processes 2. Slow, large-scale processes are “constants” that provide context for faster, smaller-scale processes 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 55
Approaches to spatial scaling • 1. Assume homogeneity 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 56
Assuming Homogenous Space Global NEP simulated by the Terrestrial Ecosystem Model (TEM) assumes homogeneity within biomes to predict broad-scale patterns. 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos Eddy flux towers physically average measurements over area ~1 km 2. 57
Approaches to spatial scaling • 1. Assume homogeneity • 2. Paint by numbers – Multiply observed pool/flux by aerial extent of ecosystem – Provides rough approximation – Success depends on: • • Representativeness of measured values Accurate aerial extent of ecosystem types Inclusion of hot spots Homogeneity of process within an ecosystem type 26/10/2021– (or valid regression Landscaperelationship Ecology Matsinos with indicator variable) 58
Mosaics • Paint-by-numbers–no interaction among sites, but not trivial! – Complex with multiple drivers or change through time – Need spatial distributions of each driver to predict process – Need the known relationships to predict for each site (cell) – Regression useful 26/10/2021 Multiple regression used to “paint by numbers” Landscape Ecology Matsinos 59
Mosaics • Advanced paint-by-numbers–no actual transfers among sites needed, but the context surrounding a site must be considered • Predictive model now based on the site plus surrounding neighborhood. • Composition and/or configuration within some distance needed to predict rate • Regression used here • Spatial statistics also useful 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 60
Approaches to spatial scaling • 1. Assume homogeneity • 2. Paint by numbers • 3. Regression relationships – Scaling rules: e. g. , NPP-NDVI relationship – Generalizations that relate NPP, decomp, ET, etc. , to resource availability • 4. Process-based models – Must understand temporal and spatial scales of important controls Ecology processes Matsinos – 26/10/2021 Must understand. Landscape important 61
Ecosystem models differ in processes and controls Represented Optimal model structure depends on modeling goals 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 62
Approaches to spatial scaling • • • 1. Assume homogeneity 2. Paint by numbers 3. Regression relationships 4. Process-based models 5. Large-scale measurements – Eddy covariance to measure carbon exchange • Averages across hot and cold spots – Inverse modeling based on atmospheric concentrations 26/10/2021 Landscape Ecology Matsinos 63
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