Land Water Use Topics Rangeland p Urban Land

Land Water Use

Topics Rangeland p Urban Land Development p Public and Federal Lands p Mining p Fishing p Global Economics p

Rangeland

Rangeland p p Vast natural landscapes with different vegetation including tall and short grasslands, chaparral, scrubland, woodlands, and wetlands Covered in natural vegetation and often used as grazing lands

Rangelands p Rangelands are about 40% of the land in the US n n Nearly 80% of the land in the west Only 7% on the east coast

Value of Rangelands p Source of grazing for livestock and wildlife n Low input, fully renewable food production Source of high quality water, clean air, and open space p Setting for recreation p n Fishing, hunting, camping, hiking, nature experiences Used for agriculture, mining, and living communities p Habitat for many game and non-game animals p Habitat for diverse array of natural plants p

Overgrazing Occurs when plants are exposed for too long without sufficient recovery periods. p Plants that are overgrazed lose their stored energy and die p n p Root dieback can add nutrients to the soil and improve water retention Plants are over grazed when it is regrazed before the roots recover n Overgrazing slows root growth by 90%

Consequence of overgrazing Pastures are less productive p Soils have less organic matter and are less fertile p Soil porosity is decreased p Infiltration and moisture holding capacity of the soil drops p Desired plants become stressed and weedier species thrive p Biodiversity decreases by reducing native vegetation p

Consequence of overgrazing Erosion can occur p Riparian (river banks, stream beds) can be destroyed and increase silting p Eutrophication due to cattle waste p Balance of ecosystem is threatened through predator control programs p Diseases can thrive p Sustainability of the land is threatened p

Desertification Conversion of marginal rangeland or cropland to more desert type land p Caused by: p n n Overgrazing Soil erosion Prolonged drought Climate change

Steps of desertification 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Overgrazing results in animals eating all available plant life Rain washes away trampled soil Wells, springs, and other water sources dry up Remaining vegetation dies or is taken for firewood Weeds unsuitable to grazing take over Ground becomes unsuitable for seed germination Winds and dry heat blow away the topsoil

Federal Rangeland Management Jurisdiction through Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) p Before 1995: policies determined by rancher advisory boards p After 1995: resource advisory council was formed by member of many groups with many interests p 40% of federal grazing permits are owned by 3% (~2000) of all livestock operators p n True cost =~$10 - $20 per animal per day

Methods of rangeland management 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Controlling the number and distribution of livestock so that the carrying capacity is not exceeded Restoring degraded rangeland Moving livestock from one area to another to allow the rangeland to recover Fencing off riparian areas to reduce damage to these sensitive areas Suppressing the growth of invasive plant species

Methods of rangeland management 6. 7. 8. Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion Providing supplemental feed at selected sites Locating water holes, water tanks, and salt blocks at strategic points that do not degrade the environment

Conservation concerns p Land administered by the BLM is inhabited by 219 species of wildlife p Livestock grazing is the fifth rated threat to endangered plant species, fourth leading threat to endangered wildlife, and number one threat to endangered species in arid regions

Urban Land Development

Planned Development p In US n n p Use: n n p 76 million residential buildings 5 million commercial buildings 1/3 of the energy 2/3 of the electricity Energy needs n n n ½ of sulfur dioxide 1/4 of nitrous oxide 1/3 of carbon dioxide

Green buildings and cities Focus on systems approach p Include: p n n n Energy conservation through government and private rebates, tax incentives, and other lesspolluting forms of energy Resource-efficient building techniques and materials Indoor air quality Water conservation through use of xeriscaping Designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycled materials

Green buildings and cities p Include: n n n Placing buildings whenever possible near public transportation hubs that use a multitude of venues such as light rail, subways, and park and rides Creating environments that are pedestrian friendly by incorporating parks, green-belts, and shopping areas in accessible areas Preserving historical and cultural aspects of the community while at the same time blending into natural feeling and aesthetics of a community

Suburban sprawl and urbanization p p p Urbanization = the movement of people form rural areas to cities and the changes that accompany it Greatest urbanization in Asia and Africa Reasons for the move: n n p Access to jobs Easier access to health care Mechanization of agriculture Access to education Nations with most rapid increase in urbanization are those with the most rapid economic growth

Pros of urbanization p p p Uses less land – less impact on the environment Better education delivery system Mass transit systems reduce reliance on fossil fuels – shorter commute Better sanitation Recycling systems are more efficient p p p Large numbers of people generate higher tax revenues Urban areas attract industry due to availability of raw materials, distribution networks, customers, and labor pool Much pollution comes from point sources – enables focused remediation techniques

Cons of urbanization p p p More concentrated impact on the land Overcrowded schools Commuting times are longer because infrastructure cannot keep up with growth Sanitiation systems have greater volumes of waste to deal with Solid-waste build up is more pronounced – landfill space is scarce and costly p p Large number of poor strain social services – wealthier people move to suburbs and decreases the tax base High population densities lead to higher crime rates Population increase may be greater than job growth rate Pollution levels are high

Transportation and Infrastructure p Transportation can be via roadways or water channels p Areas without transportation infrastructure suffer ecosystem impacts n n Degraded environment due to off-roading People take multiple paths through the environment instead of just one

Federal Highway System ~160, 000 miles of roadway important to nations economy, defense, and mobility p Receive federal funding but are owned, built, and operated by the states p Taxes p n n n 18 cents/ gallon of gas 25 cents/ gallon of diesel Tax on heavy vehicles

Federal Highway System Continued Serves all major US cities p Interstates go through downtown areas and facilitate urban sprawl p Virtually all goods and services go involve the highways system at some point in time p

Impact of an efficient and well maintained highways system p p p Less pollution: less stop and go traffic = less pollution Reduced green house gasses: reduced congestion = less greenhouse gas emissions Improve fuel economy and reduce dependence on foreign oil: fueled economy (mpg) is reduced in traffic n p p Modest improvements would save 1 billion gallons of fuel each year Improve the economy: interstates return $6 for every $1 invested Improve the quality of life: allow products to be distributed more efficiently

Canals and Channels p Channel (straight) – narrow body of water that connect two larger bodies of water p Can be natural or constructed n Need dredging because of silting

Channels p Channels frequented by ships are maintained by the Department of the Interior p Monitored and policed by the Coast Guard p Smaller channels are maintained by state and local governments

Suez Canal p p p 163 mile canal connect the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Allows water transport between Europe and Asia without going around Africa 8% of the world’s shipping goes through the Suez Canal

Panama Canal p p 48 mile canal connecting the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Allows water transport without going around South America

Lake Gatun An artificial lake created to help traffic on the Panama Canal p Deforestation has lead to rapid run off of rain and erosion of the slopes p n n The lake needs to be dredged to maintain its depth Shortfall in the dry season threatens the lake’s capacity

Roadless Areas and Ecosystem Impact Roadless areas are a haven for fish and wildlife interior species that have suffered habitat loss in other areas p Provide habitat to 1600+ threatened or endangered species p Protects watersheds p Roadless rule protects 60 million acres or 31% of National Forest systems – 2% of total land area p

Public and Federal Lands

Management – BLM p Manages: n n n 1/8 of the United States (262 million acres) 300 million acres of subsurface mining resources Wildlife management and preservation on 400 million acres Mostly in western US and Alaska Grasslands, forests, high mountains, arctic tundra, deserts Resources: energy, mineral, timber, forage, wild horse and burro populations, fish and wildlife habitats, wilderness, areas, archeological, paleontological, and historical sites

National Parks p World wide: over 1, 100 n Most do not receive protection from poachers, loggers, miners, and farmers due to cost involved

U. S. National Parks 84 million acres (4 million in private ownership) p Threatened by: p n n n n large numbers of visitors Congestion eroded trails noise pollution from autos and visitors introduction of invasive species off road vehicles commercial activities

Solution to national park issues p p p p Reducing amount of private land within national parks Providing education programs to the public Setting quotas on attendance through advanced reservation Adopting a fee that covers costs Banning off-road vehicles Banning autos and providing buses to control traffic Providing tax incentives to property owners near parks to use land grants Conducting periodic and detailed wildlife and plant inventories

Laws relevant to national parks Wilderness act (1964) p Wild and scenic rivers act (1968) p Food Security Act (1985): a. k. a “Swampbuster” contains provisions to discourage the conversion of wetlands into non-wetland areas. Also created system for farmers to regain lost federal benefits if they restore converted wetlands. p

Wildlife Refuges 1 st: Pelican Island, 4 -acres off the coast of Florida in 1903 to protect breeding birds p First created to protect wildlife that was over hunted p n p Bison, birds System developed piecemeal in response to wildlife crisis

National Wildlife Refuge p Consists of: n n p 547 refuges 93+ million acres Managed by Fish and Wildlife Service

Wetlands p p Areas that are covered by water and support plants that can grow in water-saturated soil High plant productivity Support rich diversity of animal life Countries with most: n n n Canada Russian Federation Brazil

Value of wetlands Natural water purification systems p Stabilize shorelines and reduce damage by storm surges p Reduce the risk of flooding p Reduce salt water intrusion p Habitat for many species during all or part of their life cycle p

Types of Wetlands p Fen n p Has a continuous source of ground water rich in magnesium and calcium (alkaline or basic) Water is from glacial deposits Ground is impermeable to water sits on the surface Bog n n Accumulates acidic peat In cold and temperate climates Low in nutrients and highly acidic Carnivorous plants adapted

Habitat Loss p In US, wetlands used to cover 10% of the land; now they only cover 5% n Most in Louisiana and Florida 90% of habitat loss is due to conversion to agriculture or urban development p 1/3 of all endangered species in US spend part of their life in a wetland p

Wilderness areas Wild or primitive portions of national forests, parks, and wildlife refuges where little to no human activity occurs p Wilderness Act created National Wilderness Preservation System p Encompasses a wide variety of ecosystems throughout the country p

Land Conservation Options 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Protect functioning of public land ecosystems through monitoring and enforcement Adopt a user pay to extract resources on public lands Institute fair compensation for resources Require responsibility for any user who damages or alters public lands Adopt uneven aged forestry management Include ecological services of trees in estimating value Reduce road building into uncut lands and require restoration plans for areas currently used

Land Conservation Options 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Coordinate with forest service to leave fallen trees to promote nutrient cycling Grow timber in longer rotations Reduce or eliminate clear-cutting, sheltered wood cutting, or seed tree cutting on sloped land Rely on more sustainable tree cutting methods Reduce fragmentation of remaining large forests Require certification of lumber that is cut according to sustainable practices Use sustainable techniques in tropical forests Create solutions to urban land use problems

Conservation vocab p Preservation or sustainable: to keep or maintain intact n p Remediation: to act or process of correcting a fault or deficiency n p Ex: cleaning up from Exxon Valdez or Deep Water horizon oil spills Mitigation: to moderate or alleviate in force and intensity n p Ex. Land trusts Ex: Road reflectors to make deer freeze before entering a road Restoration: to restore to its former good condition n Ex: removing a dam

Mining

Over view of mining Steps Descriptions Environmental Issues Mining Removing a mineral resource from the ground. Can involve underground, open pit, strip mining, etc. Mine wastes – acid and toxins Displacement of native species Reclamation of land recycling Processing Removing ore from gangue (non-ore material). Involves transportation, processing, smelting, and manufacturing Pollution (air, water, soil, and noise) Use Involves distribution to end user Human health concerns, risks, and hazards

Steps of mining 1. 2. 3. 4. Exploration: looking for areas that contain desired resources Site Development: take samples to determine quality and quantity of material; construct roads and bring in equipment Extraction: Removing the material from the ground Processing: Valuable material is extracted from the ore

Types of mining 1. Surface mining: soil and rock over resource is removed to gain access to material underneath n Enlarged until deposit is exhausted or costs become to high

Types of surface mining 1. Strip mining: area stripped is fairly flat; take from a large area Ex: tar sands 2. Open pit mining: removal of materials from an open air pit Ex: diamonds 3. Mountaintop removal mining: all rock and soil above seam is removed and placed in valleys Ex: Coal 4. 5. Dredging: collecting soil from bottom of the sea Highwall mining: uses continuous mining machine under remote control to remove material Ex: coal

Types of mining 2. Underground mining: large shafts dug into earth to remove material n n 3. Less surface damage Can lead to acidification of ground water after mine is abandoned in situ leaching: small holes drilled into site and water based chemical solvents are used to extract minerals

Processing p p Removes usable materials from ore Involves heat and/or chemicals

Global Reserves 2 billion tons of minerals are extracted and used each year in the US p US imports 50% of the most needed minerals p US, Germany, and Russia are 8% of the population but use 75% of most widely used metals p

Relevant Laws p p p General Mining Law (1872): grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain and allows them, upon making a discovery, to stake a claim on that deposit Mineral Leasing Act (1920): authorizes and governs leasing of public lands form developing deposits of coal, petroleum, natural gas and other hydrocarbons, phosphates, and sodium Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): Established a program for regulating surface coal mining and reclamation activities

Fishing

Fishing Techniques Bottom trawling p Drift Net p Long Line p Purse Seine p p Terms: n Target/ commercial species: the species that are being sought in the fishing n Bycatch: animals caught that are not the target species

Bottom trawling p Use a funnelshaped net to drag the ocean bottom p Target Species: n n n Cod Flounder Scallops

Drift Net Long Expanses of nets that hang down in the water p Traps: turtles, sea birds, marine mammals p 1992 UN voluntary ban on drift nets longer than 1. 5 mi p Ghost fishing p

Longline Place very long lines with thousands of baited hooks p Target species: swordfish, tuna, sharks, halibut, cod p Bycatch: sea turtles, pilot whales, dolphins p

Purse Seine Surrounds school of fish spotted with aircraft with a large net which is drawn tight p Target species: tuna, mackerel, anchovies, herring p Bycatch: dolphins, sea turtles p

Overfishing p p p Oceans supply 1% of all human food and 10% of world’s protein source China responsible for 1/3 of all fishing 1/3 are used for nonconsumption n Fish oil n Fish meal n Animal feed p 1/3 of global catches are bycatch n p discarded Maximum sustained yield = largest amount of marine organisms that can be harvested without causing a population crash

Overfishing

Techniques to Sustainably Managing Fisheries 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Regulate locations and numbers of fish farms and monitor their pollution output Encourage the production of herbivorous fish species Require and enforce labeling of fish products that were raised of caught according to sustainable methods Set catch limits far below maximum sustainable yields Eliminate government subsidies for commercial fishing

Techniques to Sustainably Managing Fisheries 6. 7. 8. 9. Prevent importation of fish from foreign countries that do not adhere to sustainableharvesting methods. Place trading sanctions on foreign countries that do not adhere to sustainable-harvesting methods Assess fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from public waters Increase the number of marine sanctuaries and no-fishing areas

Techniques to Sustainably Managing Fisheries 10. Increase penalties for fishing techniques that do not allow escape of bycatch, including unwanted fish species, marine mammals, sea birds, and sea turtles 11. Ban the throwing back of bycatch 12. Monitor and destroy invasive species transported through ship ballast

How to restore freshwater fish habitat Planting native p Restoring fish passages vegetation on around human madestream banks impediments p Rehabilitating inp Monitoring, regulating, stream habitats and enforcing recreational and p Controlling erosion commercial fishing p Controlling invasive p Protecting costal species estuaries and wetlands p

Aquaculture p (or mariculture) = fish farming n p Growing commercial species for food Involves: n n Stocking Feeding Protection from predators Harvesting

Aquaculture Industry growing by 6% annually p Provides 5% of world’s total food production p Most in lessdeveloped countries p p Products: n Seaweeds p n Kelp = 75% Mollusks = 80% Mussels p Oysters p n n Shrimp = 40% Salmon Trout Catfish

Advantages p Cold blooded animals convert more feed to useable protein n n Requires less feed than livestock systems For every hectare of ocean oyster farming can produce 58, 000 kg of protein p Harvesting oysters = 10 kg

Requirements Species must be marketable p Inexpensive to raise p Trophically efficient p Marketable to size at 1 – 2 years p Disease resistant p

Disadvantages Industrial aquaculture posses a threat to marine and coastal biological diversity p Creates wide-scale destruction and degradation of natural habitats p Leaves nutrients and antibiotics as aquaculture waste p Accidental release of alien or modified species into native waters p Transmission of disease to wild stocks p Displacement of local indigenous human communities p

Case Study – Salmon Farming 22% of all retail seafood p Farmed salmon have more PCBs than any other protein source p n n Fattened with fish meal and fish oils high in PCBs PCB = polychlorinated biphenyls Banned in US in 1970’s – persistent pollutants p Cause cancer and fetal development effects p p Farmed salmon contains 52% more fat that wild caught salmon

Relevant Laws p Anadromous Fish Conservation Act (1965): authorizes Sectary of the Interior to enter into agreements to conserve, develop, and enhance anadromous fish resources in the US. n n Anadromous = fish that migrate from the sea to fresh water to spawn Example: Salmon

Relevant Laws p Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976): n n n Governs marine fisheries in US federal waters Aside in development of domestic fishing industry by phasing out foreign fishing Manage fisheries Promote conservation Created eight regional fishery management councils 1996 amendments focused on rebuilding overfished fisheries, protecting essential fish habitat, reducing bycatch

Relevant Laws p United Nations Treaty on the Law of the Sea (1982): n n Defines rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world’s oceans Establishes guidelines for businesses, the environment, and management of marine resources

Global Economics

Global Economy and the environment The environment contains resources that can be used in the economy p Use of resources contains new environmental issues p Increased economic activity improves standards of living p Until recently development of economies and local environments were seperate p

World Bank Source of financial and technical assistance to the developing world p Owned by 184 member countries p Provides low interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries to improve education, health, infrastructure, communications, and environmental issues p In 2001 endorsed a strategy to focus on environmental issues p

World bank environmental projects $13. 8 billion in areas of biodiversity, conservation, climate change, and international waters p $740 million to phase out ozone-depleting substances p $1. 6 billion into projects that reduce green house gas emisions p

“Tragedy of the Commons” p Overuse of common/public land leads to: n n n n Uncontrolled human population growth Air pollution Over extraction of ground water and wasting water due to excessive irrigation Frontier logging of old growth forests and slash and burn Habitat destruction Poaching overfishing

Limits to “Tragedy of the Commons” p p p Economic decisions are short term while environmental consequences are long term Land that is privately owned is subject to market pressure Some commons are easier to control than others Incorporating discount rates into the valuation of resources would be an incentive for investors to bear a short-term cost for a long-term gain Breaking commons into smaller, privately owned parcels fragments government policies Different standards and practices may affect one parcel differently than others

Names to know p p p Rachel Carson: Wrote Silent Spring lead to ban on DDT Aldo Leopold: book A Sand county Almanac. Developed environmental ethics John Muir: Founded Sierra Club and helped save many wilderness areas Theodore Roosevelt: 26 president setting aside land for national forests, wildlife refuges, developing farmlands, and advocating for protecting wild spaces Henry David Thoreau: book Walden discussed materialism and need for conservation