King Abdulaziz University Department of European Languages Literature

King Abdulaziz University Department of European Languages & Literature Syntax (LANE-334) Chapter 3 Functions Dr. Abdulrahman Alqurashi 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 1

Categories vs. Functions v Each constituent (i. e. syntactic unit) belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. § Grammatical categories can be: • Nouns (N), Verbs (V), Adjectives (Adj), Adverbs (Adv) , Prepositions (P) , Complementizers (C)…etc. § Grammatical functions can be: • Subjects (Sub), Specifiers (spec), Predicate (pre), Direct Object (DO), Indirect Object (IDO), Head, Adjunct, Complements …etc. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 2

Introduction v Consider the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. [S [NPThe boy] [VP read [NP the diary. ]]] [S [NP He] [VP laughed. ]] [S [NP He] [VP turned [NP a page. ]]] [S [NP He] [VP leaned [PP towards the German girl. ]]] [S [NP He] [VP said [NP few words] [PP to her. ]]] v Each of the above clauses contains two main constituents: a NP (Subject) and VP (predicate) • S NP - VP 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 3

The verb and its complements v Subcategorization frames for verbs: Verb types Frames Examples Intransitive [VP –] He laughed Copula [VP – { Adj. P , NP or PP}] He seems [Adj. P very sad] Monotransitive [VP– { NP / S} ] He killed [NP the mouse] Ditransitive [VP – {NP- NP / NP-PP}] He gave [ NP the girl][NP a book] Complex transitive [VP – NP -{Adj. P / NP}] He called [NP him][Adj. P fool] Intransitive +PP [VP – PP ] He leaned [PP towards the girl] Transitive +PP [VP – NP - PP] He put [NP the cup][PP on the table] 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 4

The verb and its complements v The verb may contain more that one word like: • e. g. He went out. • e. g. He gave up alcohol. § go out [VP – ] § gave up [VP – NP ] Intransitive verb Monotransitive verb v These are known as phrasal verbs 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 5

Grammatical functions in S Ø Subject is the function related to the constituent introducing the sentence. • e. g. [S [ NP the boy] [VP was reading]] • S NP VP The boy was reading Ø How do we identify the subject in a sentence? ① NPs functioning as Subjects invert with the first auxiliary in question formation (Sub-Aux Inversion): 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 6

Grammatical functions in S - Subject § Examples: A. The boy was reading B. Was the boy reading? ② Subjects of finite clause agree with the first auxiliary or with the main verb if there is no auxiliary. § Examples: A. The boy was reading B. The boys were laughing A. The boy reads a story everyday. B. The boys read a story everyday. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 7

Grammatical functions in S - Subject ③ Subject NPs can be replaced by a pronoun in the subjective form but not in the objective form. § Examples: A. The boy was reading. B. He was reading. C. * him was reading. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 8

Grammatical functions in S Ø Predicate is the part of a sentence or clause that contains a verb and states something about the subject. • e. g. [S [ NP the boy] [VP was reading]] • S NP VP The boy was reading Ø There are some kind of predicative function inside VP (We will deal with this later) 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 9

Grammatical functions in S Ø Adjunct is a word or phrase that constitutes an optional element or is considered of secondary importance in a sentence. Ø Adjuncts fall outside the two major constituents NP and VP v Sentence adjuncts are of two types: ① Adverbs that specify speaker's attitude toward the rest of the sentence (e. g. unfortunately, certainly, in my view, in fact) • Unfortunately, the match was canceled because of bad weather. • The match was canceled because of bad weather, unfortunately. ② Items which serve to connect sentences in a text (e. g. yet, moreover, however, nevertheless, ) • John had planned to swim across the Channel last year. However, when the time came he did not have the courage. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 10

Grammatical functions in VP v 1. Predicative complement Ø Predicative Complement (PC) ascribes some property to the subject. Ø This function is realized by NPs, Adj. Ps or PPs. Ø The verb that selects such a complement belongs to the class of copulas (be, look, seem, etc. ). Ø The constituent that has a grammatical function of Predicative complement is obligatory after the verb. § Examples: i. Jane seemed [NP a good student]. ii. John looked [Adj. P foolish ] in that tracksuit. iii. Bill was [ PP in a bad mood]. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 11

Grammatical functions in VP Ø The Predicative complement agrees with the subject NP: • a) She is an actress. • b) They are actresses. v 2. Direct object: is the grammatical function related to the complement of monotransitive, ditransitive, and transitive verbs. Ø Direct object is obligatorily selected by the verb. § Examples: I. Ahmad was folding [NP the magazine] [PP for the second time]. II. The snake killed [NP the rat ]. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 12

Grammatical functions in VP Ø How do we identify the direct object in a sentence? § a NP functioning as an object becomes the Subjects of the passive sentence: • [NP The rat ] was killed by the snake. v 3. Indirect object: is the grammatical function related to Ø Ø Ø § • • the complement of ditransitive verbs. Indirect objects are realized by an NP preceding Direct objects Indirect objects can be replaced by a PP. Indirect objects are obligatorily selected by the verb. Examples: She gave[NP the boy] [NP some chocolates]. She gave[NP some chocolates] [PP to the boy]. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 13

Grammatical functions in VP v 4. Adverbial Complement (Ac) with intransitive V: Ø It is related to the complement of intransitive verbs. Ø It is realized by a PP or an Adv. P. Ø It gives information concerning the place, manner, time, duration, … etc. Ø It is obligatorily selected by the verb. § Examples: • a) The newspaper remained [PP with Mr. Ellis] [PP for two hours] • b) He is [PP in London] • c) The women remained [Adv. P upstairs] 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 14

Grammatical functions in VP v 5. Adverbial Complement (Ac) with transitive V: Ø It is related to the complement of transitive verbs. Ø Ø Ø § • • It is realized by a PP or an Adv. Ps that follows the direct object. It gives information concerning location and manner … etc. It is obligatorily selected by the verb. Examples: a) John put [NP the money] [PP in the box]. b) John put [NP the money] [Adv. P upstairs] c) He worded [NP the letter] [Adv. P very carefully. ] d) The children always reminded [NP me] [PP of their grandfather]. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 15

Grammatical functions in VP v 6. Complex Function: Predicative complement + Adverbial Complement: Ø It is related to the complement of complex transitive verbs. Ø It is realized by an Adj. P or an NP that follows the direct object. § Examples: Adverbial a) The government set [NP the prisoners] [Adj. P free]. Predicative Ø The constituent following the direct object has both a predicative complement function (because it predicates something of the direct object) and an adverbial complement function (because it also narrows down the meaning of the verb). 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 16

Grammatical functions in VP v 6. Complex Function: Predicative complement + Adverbial Complement: Adverbial • she called [NP him] [Adj. P crazy]. Predicative • b) She called [NP her baby] [NP George]. • c) They called [NP him] [Adj. P crazy]. Ø The constituents following the direct object has both predicative complement function (because they predicate something of the direct object) and Adverbial complement function (because they also narrow down the meaning of the verb). 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 17

Assignment Q: Bracket the complement and indicate what kind of complement it is and how it is realized in each of the following sentences: § § § The doctor put her on a diet. They left the door open. The room is in a mess. He destroyed all the magazines. This song gives me a headache. He lives in Paris. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 18

Adjuncts and Complements v Complements are necessary for the grammaticality of the sentence but not adjuncts. § Consider the following examples: • The doctor put [NP the girl] [PP on a diet]. ² The verb put requires two complements: ① The direct object: [NP the girl] ② The adverbial complement: [PP on a diet]. § Now consider this example: • Last year the doctor reluctantly put [NP the girl] [PP on a diet] because she was overweight. ² All the items in green are adjuncts because they do not affect the grammaticality of the sentence if they are deleted. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 19

Adjuncts and Complements v VP Adjuncts: § Verb phrases may have adverbial adjunct or predicative adjunct. ① Adverbial adjuncts such as: • John [VP walked [Adv. P slowly] [PP down the road ]]. • Mary [VP helped James [PP in the airport] [PP on Sunday]]. ② Adverbial and Predicative adjuncts such as: Adverbial • They [VP have painted [ NP the house] [Adj. P red ]] Predicative • She [VP married [Adj. P young ]]. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 20

Complex sentences: function of clauses v. Finite Clauses Ø A subject or an object may be realized not only by a NP but also by a clause such as: • [S [NP He] [ VP decided [CP that he should never meet him again]]] • [S [NP He] [ VP felt [CP that he should apologize to his friend]]] Ø The CPs [that he should. . ] function as the direct objects of the verbs in the above sentences. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 21

Complex sentences: function of clauses S NP PRN VP V CP C He He 2015/2016 felt that decided that KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 S he should apologize… he should never … 22

Complex sentences: function of clauses v. Nonfinite Clauses § Compare the following examples: • Ø [S [NP He] [ VP believes [S that the prisoner is innocent ]]] The above bracketed clause is finite. [S [NP He] [ VP believes [S the prisoner to be innocent ]]] The above bracketed clause is Nonfinite. Ø The S [the prisoner to be innocent] functions as the direct object of the verb believe. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 23

Complex sentences: function of clauses v. Nonfinite Clauses (Verbless clauses): • [S [NP He] [ VP believes [S the prisoner to be innocent ]]]: Ø The above bracketed clause can have a reduced form like • [S [NP He] [ VP believes [S the prisoner innocent ]]] Ø The S [the prisoner innocent] is called verbless clause. Ø It should be labelled [Sø] [S [NP He] [ VP believes [Sø [NP the prisoner ] [Adj. P innocent]]] Ø It is treated as a clause because there is a predicate relationship between the NP the prisoner and the Adj. P innocent. Ø It functions as the direct object of the verb believe. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 24

Grammatcal functions in phrases v Noun phrases: Function Specifier Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier Category (Det ) (Adj. P) Noun (PP) Examples The five French students from Paris v Verb phrases: Function Specifier Head Category Model Verb NP NP (PP) Examples will show the girl the paintings after dinner 2015/2016 Complements KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 Adjunct 25

Grammatcal functions in phrases v Adjective phrases: Function Specifier Head Complement Category (Adv ) Adj PP/S [Adv very] Examples [Adv extremely] [Adj fond] [Adj worried] [Adj afraid] [PP of her] [PP about his future] [S that she might die] v Adverb phrases: Function Specifier Head Category (Adv) Adverb Examples [Adv very] [Adv extremely] [Adv recently] [Adv slowly] 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 26

Grammatcal functions in phrases v Prepositional phrases: Function Specifier Head Complements Category (Adv ) / (NP) preposition NP [P on] [P before] [NP the spot] [NP his arrival] Examples [NP [Adv right] two minutes] v General representation for all types of phrases: X-Phrase: Specifier – Head – Complement – {Modifier/Adjunct} X v X stands for any category such as N, V, …etc 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 27

What to do next week v. Read chapter 4. v. Prepare for your mid-term exam See you next week. 2015/2016 KAU-Syntax/ LANE-334 28