John B Watson Came up with tabula rasa

John B. Watson Came up with tabula rasa: we are all born the same and through conditioning we are who we are Little albert experiment Felt that psych should only focus on behavior

John Watson: Aversive conditioning (conditioning for negative response) Little albert experiment (11 months) Associates mouth with painful experience UCS-loud noise UCR-fear CS-rat CR-fear of rat

Second order conditioning Second order or higher order conditioning Once a CS elicits a CR, the CS can be used (as US) to condition a response to a new stimulus Ex: dogs salivate to bell (first order conditioning) Light is paired with bell (second order) Light-salivation

Biology and classical conditioning Animals/ humans are biologically wired to make certain association more easily than other Ex: Conditioned (learned) taste aversions (adaptive response) -Fudge: shaped in squares and dog feces -Bottle: labeled sucrose and cyanide -Classical conditioning, but biologically predisposed

Operant conditioning Learning based on consequences -association made between consequences and ones behavior Thorndike’s law of effect -positive consequences result in strong stimuli response connection Negative consequences results in weakened stimulus response connection-decreased behavior Instrumental learning: consequence shapes behaviors

Classical vs operant conditioning Classical-stimuli Operant-consequences

B. F. Skinner Felt that external influences not internal thought feeling influence behavior Something that you can test not unconscious What can lead to certain behavior Operant conditioning Most influential individual in the field

The skinner box Testing rewards and punishment Experiment on rats

Skinner’s reinforcement Reinforcement: a consequence that encourages a certain behavior Positive (+) reinforcement: add something pleasant (treat for a dog) Negative reinforcement (-) : remove something unpleasant (take Advil to remove headache) Negative punishment (omission training): removes something pleasant (being grounded) Positive punishment: adds something negative (hitting dog with newspaper)

Learning by Operant Conditioning Shaping: -reinforcing the steps used to reach a desired behavior (single behaviors-press bar food) Chaining: -reinforcing a number of separate behaviors for a more complex activity (obstacle course, salsa lessons)

Types of Reinforces Primary reinforces -natural reinforces (food, water) Secondary reinforces -things we’ve learned to value: (money)

MONEY AS A REINFORCES money= generalize reinforce -can be used for anything Token economy -tokens as a positive reinforcement -cash in for other reinforces -schools, mental institutions, prisons

Biology and operant conditioning Reinforces: effects can vary -effect of reinforce can vary depending on animal, its instincts, and situation instinctive drift: -ignore rewards to follow natural (instinctive) behavior Premark Principle -if two activities-the one preferred can be used to reinforce the one not preferred

Reinforcement shedules Reinforcement schedules=pattern of reinforcing behavior Administered in 2 ways: Ratio-number of responses Interval-time

Reinforcement schedules FR (fixed ratio): reinforcement after set number of responses VR (variable ratio): reinforcement after varied number of responses -lottery FI( fixed interval): fixed amount of time set before reward behavior-every 2 weeks get a paycheck VI(variable interval): varied amount of time before reward (avg time set)-pop quiz

Learning and extinction FR and FI=faster acquisition (learning), but faster extinction VR and VI: slower learning but slower extinction Which of these four yields the highest rate of response? Why slower extinction with VR and VI? -noticing a break in pattern is more difficult - “always that chance”

Learning with punishment Escape learning -to terminate an aversive stimulus: ex-to disrupt English class as to “get out” Avoidance learning -to avoid stimulus all together: ex-cut English class There is a student that disruptive in class and gets kicked out, he doesn’t want to be in class anyways so getting kicked is what motivates him to keep doing it

Pitfalls of punishment According to behaviorists, what are potential pitfalls of punishment -tells only what NOT to do, not what to do -creates anxiety which interferes with learning -only suppresses behavior, doesn’t eliminate (discrimination) -Physical punishment-aggressive behavior (correlation, not causation)

Classical vs operant Similar -both forms of associate learning -both involve: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination -both influenced by biology and cognition Differences -classical: response is automatic, reward independent of action, learning is part of the autonomic response (UCR) -operant: response is voluntary, reward contingent on action, learning is part of voluntary behavior

PAVLOV -classical conditioning-how all organism learn to adapt to their environment -practical applications for fears, phobias etc. Skinner -definitive insight into learned behavior -practical applications abound Both asserted that learning occurs w/o though (cognition) Only focused on observable behavior

Cognitive learning How could cognitive argue that cognition is influential in both classical and operant conditioning -classical: CS triggers anticipation of UCS -operant: awareness that responses=consequences and thus acts to max the reinforcement

Cognitive learning Observational learning -aka modeling -observation=imitation -mirror neurons (frontal lobe/neural basis for observational learning) -Albert Banduras: Bobo doll experiment social learning theory (species specific) antisocial BEHAVIOR (Bobo doll experiment: two dolls in diff rooms, one acted upon aggression other nice, see response in students ) Implications for TV and youth?

Cognitive learning Latent learning (“hidden”) Learning that is not directly observable Tolman’s Rat maze study -group 1: rewarded every time reached goal -group 2: no reward when reached goal -group 3: no reward 1 st 10 days, reward on 11 th Ø finding: Latent learning (3 rd group learned cognitive map in 1 st trial, bur didn’t show it until reward) Ø thus learning takes place without reinforcement

Cognitive Learning Insight learning (aha!) Sudden grasp of problem Wolfgang Kohler: Chimpanzees Sudden insight, not gradual strengthening od S-R association

Cognition

Memory process 3 steps Encoding: processing of info into memory system (typing on a computer) Storage: retention of encoded material over time (to hit save) Retrieval: getting the info out of storage (opening a file)

The stage processing model Sensory memory: held for a few sec according to the sensory impact on our organs (glow sticks) Short-term memory (working memory) Long-term memory

Sensory memory Immediate recording of sensory info “Split sec holding tank” Most stimulus no encoded -selective attention: only pay attention to certain things Sensory memory registered as: -iconic (split sec vanishing picture) -echoic (4 sec sounds)

Short term memory (working memory) Memory that holds a few items briefly Limit: seven digits/ items (plus or minus 2) Info is stored into long-term, or forgotten Lasts 3 -12 sec Shirt term, or working memory has 3 parts: -acoustics codes: encoding sound -visual codes: how you see the letters -semantic codes: meaning

Long term memory Permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Flashbulb memory An extreme emotional moment or event Somehow branded into long-term memory Where were you when? -you heard about 9/11 -your first kiss -first car accident

Encoding 2 ways: -automatic processing -effortful processing

Encoding Automatic: -unconscious encoding -location, time and frequency -retracing steps to find your keys -also becomes automatic with practice

Encoding Effortful processing -attention/ conscious effort -studying for a test -through practice effortful can become automatic

Factors that influence Spacing effect -encode info better if in increments over time Serial positioning effect -tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list -primary effect: remember 1 st words, items -regency effect: remember last items, words Next-in-line effect -don’t remember what someone has said if we are next. . Self-reference effect -we encode better when issue relates to us

Encoding strategies Can enhance memory … Mnemonic devices Any learning technique that aids memory -uses imagery, semantics to remember… Acronyms: Parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, subtraction “Please excuse my dear aunt Sally”

Storage and short- term memory Last usually between 3 to 12 seconds Limit: 7 (plus or minus 2) chunks of info We recall digits better than letters.

Remember: there is no one single compartment for memory in our brain Long term-potentiation -leading theory for LTM (long term memories) -neural networks strengthen memory -neural connections gradually strengthen through rehearsal over time (memory strengthened) -nerve cell’s genes produce synapse strengthening proteins/ enabling LTM formation

Hippocampus Critical memory (injury=impairment) -left=vertical memory -right= visual/location Processes LTM, then stores elsewhere in cerebral cortex Ex: if library=our brain, librarian=hippocampus

Amygdala Emotional memories -images, smells, sounds Hippocampus and amygdala work together to form LTM -hippo=conscious memory of event -amygdala=emotional memory form the senses

Retrieval recall vs recognition Recognition; multiple choice Recall; long response

Retrieval cues Memory = web of associations Priming “strand or web of associations that leads to a specific memory”

Factors that influence retrieval Context effect -retrieval is more effective when retrieving in some location as experienced Tip of the tongue effect(TOT) -temporary inability to retrieve specific names of info -usually remedied by semantic cues

Conditions that affect memory Mood-congruent theory -the tendency to recall memories consistent with our current mood State - dependent theory -recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness -ex: if you hide money while you are drunk, you are most likely to remember where you hid it when you are intoxicated

3 ways we forget Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure

Encoding Don’t encode what we don’t need Not encoding/ no LTM

Storage decay Memory storage decays over time Lack of rehearsal accelerates decay Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve -step decline of retention over 1 st 3 days, then levels off…

Retrieval failure 2 TYPES: Proactive interference -new info is messed up by the old info -pro=new Retroactive interference -old info is messed up by new learning -retro=old

Retrieval failure REPRESSION: Psychoanalytic theory-Freud’s theory of repression -we push away uncomfortable memories -contradicts theory that emotions/stress hormones strengthen memories

Research studies Memories bend and change over time, and are often inaccurate!! Youngest and oldest (5 -75) are most susceptible -frontal lobe: matures slowly and decays quickly Research studies Elizabeth Loftus (over 200 experiments) -how wording influences our memory Cornell University-Space Shuttle Disaster -recollections on day after and 3 years later -2/3 were totally wrong as to whom with, where etc.

Misinformation effect About how fast were the vehicles going where they slammed into each other OR When they ran into each other?

Amnesia Forgetting source of a memory Where did they hear that? One of the frailest parts of our memory

Types of amnesia Anterograde -remember everything before the accident, but not after (50 first dates) Retrograde Amnesia -remember everything after the incident, but not before (the vow)

Organizing our thoughts (making cognitive sense out of our world) Cognition Concept Category hierarchies We from concepts by… -definition -prototypes: dog-first kind of dog that pops into your head

Problem solving with cognition Cognitive problem solving -algorithms: always leads to right answer -heuristics: saves you time, shortcut -insight:

Limitations of heuristic judgment Heuristic problem solving: hugely useful, but sometimes leads us astray. . Availability heuristic: how we tend to judge things what we are exposed the most (why we develop fears of airplanes, than driving cars) Representative heuristic:

Limitations of heuristic judgments Overconfidence Belief bias: only pay attention to things we believe on Belief perseverance (confirmation bias): only focus on what confirms our beliefs Framing

Obstacles to problem solving Confirmation bias Fixation -mental sets/ rigidity: we fall victim into using the same problem solving because it has worked in the past -functional fixedness: we cant use an object differently that what it is made for

Creativity and cognition Positive correlation between both Creativity: ability to create something new and useful Types : -convergent thinking -divergent thinking

Language Key component to humans thoughts

language What component distinguishes language from other of communication? -words (spoken, written or signed)

Language structure Phonemes : -phono-sound -smallest unit of sound in language -40 English language Morphemes : -smallest units of meaning -prefixes, suffixes Grammar semantics and syntax)

Grammar: system of rules that govern language -semantics: the study of meaning for morphemes words sentences -adding -ed suffix=past tense -Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences -adjectives comes before nouns

Language development 4 m-babbles speech sounds 10 - babbles household language 12 -one-word stage 24 -two-word stage (telegraphic speech) 24+- rapid development into complete sentences

Theories of language development Skinner vs. Chomsky Skinner -language= operant conditioning (nurture) -association: pairing objects with words -imitation: words and syntax modeled by others -reinforcement: praise Chomsky -language occurs naturally (nature) -Language acquisition device: brain is prewired for universal grammars-thus ready to learn any languages (switches will be set to specific language) -surface structure: organization of language -deep structure: meaning

Lang development Babies- a built in readiness to learn grammatical rules Critical period -childhood: best/only time to master certain elements of language 2 nd language: those who learn it best (Chomsky: LAD-grammar switches set early) -Learning window-closes gradually after the age of 7 -Hearing children/deaf children : parallel results -No language as child/ language learning capacity never fully develops

Bilingual advantage More advanced in school Better at following complex directions Demonstrate better mental flexibility Tend to perform better on tests of creativity

Motivation and emotion

Motivational theories and concepts Motives-needs, wants, desires leading to goal directed behavior Drive theories-seeking homeostasis( internal balance) Incentive theories-regulating by external stimuli Evolutionary theories-maximizing reproductive success

Theories of motivation Instinct theory (fixed action patterns) : theory that all behaviors will be determined by innate factors and biologically based behaviors that generally lead to survival -the term instinct was becoming overused, so the psychologist changed the phrase they use to fixed…. .

Drive reduction theory Drive theory: the idea that a physiological need created a state of tension ( a drive) motivating an organism to satisfy their needs -states that a person will eat food as a result of a drive of hunger -aims for homeostasis or biological balance

Theories of motivation Cognitive social learning theory: our behavior is determined by 2 factors: 1) the expectations of meeting a goal 2) the personal value of the goal -locus of control: our belief that we control the outcome of our own lives-instinisic vs. extinistic control Psychodynamic theory: our motivation comes from the deep, dark parts of our unconscious minds (the id) -we have 2 basic needs 1) Eros- desire for sex 2) Thantos- aggression and destruction

Maslow’s hierarchy / humanistic Maslow argued that humans behave to satisfy specific types of need. He broke them into 5 categories: 1) biological: hunger, thirst, warmth 2) Safety: avoid danger 3) Attachment: wanting to belong to something 4) Esteem: seeing oneself as competent and effective 5) Self-actualization: being all that you can possibly be (achieving your goals)

Maslow’s hierarchy Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the need human haves Before one of the higher needs can be full filed the need on the levels below must be met, at least some degree -most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a person can move onto a higher need

Marlow pyramid pic

The motivation of hunger and eating: biological factors Brain regulation -lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus -periventricular nucleus Glucose and digestive regulation -glucostatic theory Hormonal regulation -insulin and lepton

The motivation of hunger and eating environmental factors Learned preference and habits -exposure -when, as well as what Food-related cues -appearance, odor, effort required Stress -link between heightened arousal/ negative emotion and overeating

Types of Motivation of achievement Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior because of promised reward or threats of punishments Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective (read a book because you want to) Achievement motive=need to excel -work harder -Delay gratification -pursue competitive careers -situational influences on achievement motives -thematic apperception test (TAT)

Theories of emotion James-Lange -feel afraid because pulse is raising Cannon-bard -thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system Schacter’s Two-factor theory -look to external cues to decide what to feel Evolutionary theories -innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation

Psychological theories of emotion Cognitive appraisal theory: the thought that we look back on a situation and consciously decide how we should feel about the situation -ex: grades, papers Opponent process theory: theory that we trigger one emotion by suppressing its opposite emotion -ex: drugs- the highs experienced by some drugs are replaced with los (withdrawals). Eventually ppl take drugs no for the highs, but to avoid the lows

Yerkes-Dodson Law Yerkes-dodson law A theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a certain point. Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance. Also known as the inverted U

Responding to stress physiologically Physiological response -fight-or-flight response (decide to fight or flee stress) -Seley’s general adaptation syndrome 1) alarm 2) resistance 3) exhaustion Brain-body pathways in stress-sympathetic adrenal medullary (SAM) -hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) PICTURE Figure 13. 6

Types of conflict that cause stress Approach-approach: 2 positive things from which to decide Approach-avoidance: decide between a positive or a negative Avoidance-avoidance: 2 negative things from which to decide from

Responding to stress behaviorally Behavioral response: coping-emotion focused -frustration-aggression hypothesis -catharsis: relieve Defensive Coping-ego defense mechanisms-Freud Constructive Coping-problem focused

Effects of stress Impaired task performance Burnout: antecedent-components-consequences Posttraumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD)-effects on hippocampus (cortisol)-prevalence of traumatic events Reaction to traumatic stress Psychological problems and disorders

Developmental psychology

Prenatal stages 3 phases -germinal stage= first 2 weeks conception, implantation, formation of placenta -embryonic stage= 2 weeks-2 moths formation of vital organs and systems -fetal stage= 2 months –birth bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply

Early emotional development : attachment Separation anxiety Ainsworth -the strange situation and patterns of attachment 1) anxious-ambivalent 2) Avoidant 3) secure: Developing secure attachment: -bonding at birth (contact comfort) -daycare -cultural factors Evolutionary perspectives on attachment

Parenting styles Authoritarian: strict parent Permissive: I’m too busy, do whatever you want Authoritative: firm but understanding, sets boundaries but allows child input

Stage theories of development : personality Stages theories: 3 components -progress through stages in order -progress through stages related to age -major discontinuities development Erikson -eight stages spanning the lifespan (figure 11. 8) -Psychosocial crises: determining balance between opposing polarities in personality

Stage theories: cognitive development Jean Piaget -Assimilation/ accommodation -4 stages and major milestones 1) sensorimotor: object permanence 2) Preoperational: centration, egocentrism 3) Concrete operational: decentration, reversibility, conservation 4) Formal operation : abstraction, abstract thoughts

Development of moral reasoning Kohlberg -reasoning as opposed to behavior -moral dilemmas -measured nature and progression of moral reasoning -3 levels of each 2 sublevels 1) Preconventional-punishment/ native reward 2) Conventional – good boy/ authority 3) Postconventional social contact/ individual principles and conscience -Longitudinal studies (research issues (use of males) reasoning vs behavior

Carol Gilligan Critique Kohlberg’s work Kohlberg used most men Argued that males and females view morality in terms of broad principles like justice and fairness Women are taught to view morality in terms of responsibility towards an individual and a willingness to help others For women, compassion is a stronger factor when making a moral decision Helps explain why men and women regard morality of a particular situation in contradictory ways

Adolescence Pubescence-growth spurts -10 -12 in fem 12 -14 males Puberty -secondary sex characteristic -primary sex characteristics -menarche (menstruation) -sperm production Maturation: early vs. late -sex differences in effects of early maturation

Adulthood and old age Life spam: max age possible for member of a given species Life expectancy: the number of years that an evg members of a species is expected to live Menopause: the end of menstruation and fertility

Aging and intellectual functions Alzheimer’s disease -a progressive disorder that strikes older ppl, causing memory loss and other symptoms Fluid intelligence: includes inductive reasoning and spatial ability, ability to reason speedily and abstractly, declines steadily throughout middle and late adulthood Crystalized intelligence: includes verbal ability and numeric ability, one’s accumulated knowledge, skills and ability

Death and dying Elizabeth kubler-ross 5 stages in approaching death: 1) Denial: shock 2) Anger: release of bottled up emotions 3) Bargaining: seeking in vain for a way out 4) Depression: final realization … 5) Acceptance

personality

Openness a) Imaginative vs. down-to-earth b) Preference for variety vs. preference for routine c) Independent vs. conforming Conscientiousness a) Well organized vs. disorganized b) Careful vs. careless c) Self-disciplined vs. weak willed Agreeableness a) Softhearted vs. Ruthless b) Trusting vs. suspicious c) Helpful vs. uncooperative Neuroticism a) Worried vs. calm b) Insecure vs. secure c) Self-pitying vs. self-satisfied Extraversion a) Social vs. retiring b) Fun-loving vs. sober c) Affectionate vs. reserved 5 factor model of personality

Psychodynamic perspectives Freud’s psychoanalytic theory Structure of personality -ID: pleasure principle -EGO: reality principle -Superego: morality Levels of awareness -conscious -unconscious -preconscious

conflicts Freud’s psychoanalytic theory conflict -sex and aggression -anxiety -defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms 1) reaction formation 2) projection 3) rationalization (intellectualization) 4) displacement 5) sublimation 6) repression

Personality development Oral Anal Phallic Latency genital

Carl Jung : analytical psychology 1. Personal and collective unconscious 2. Archetypes 3. Introversion/ extroversion Alfred Adler: individual psychology 1. Striving for supierioty 2. Compensation 3. Birth order

Evaluating psychodynamic perspectives Pros: 1. The unconscious 2. The role of internal conflict 3. The importance of early childhood Cons 1. Poor testability 2. Inadequate empiric 3. Sexist views