Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow B F

Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow • B. F. Skinner • Erik Erickson • Howard Gardner

Why Study Child & Parenting Development Theories? Theories help people: – Organize their ideas about raising children. – Understand influences on parenting. – Discover more than one way to interact with children. – Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory.

Why Study the Selected Theories? The selected theories: – Have been popular and influential. – Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction. – Offer help in the “real world” of daily childrearing. – Make good common sense.

Child Development • Definition: – Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival. • Periods of development: – Prenatal period: from conception to birth – Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years – Early childhood: 2 -6 years old – Middle childhood: 6 -12 years old – Adolescence: 12 -19 years old

Domains of Development is described in three domains, but growth in one domain influences the other domains. • Physical Domain: – body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor development, perception capacities, physical health. • Cognitive Domain: – thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language. • Social/Emotional Domain: – self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self -regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and friendships.

6 th - 15 th centuries Medieval period • Preformationism: children seen as little adults. • Childhood is not a unique phase. • Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around 7 years old. • Children treated as adults (e. g. their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be married, were made into kings, were imprisoned or hanged as adults. )

16 th Century Reformation period • Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed. • Children were born evil, and must be civilized. • A goal emerged to raise children effectively. • Special books were designed for children.

17 th Century Age of Enlightenment • John Locke believed in tabula rasa • Children develop in response to nurturing. • Forerunner of behaviorism www. cooperativeindividualism. org/ locke-john. jpg

18 th Century Age of Reason • Jean-Jacques Rousseau – children were noble savages, born with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be interfered with. • Rousseau used the idea of stages of development. • Forerunner of maturationist beliefs

19 th Century Industrial Revolution • Charles Darwin – theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest • Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals. • Forerunner of ethology

20 th Century Theories about children's development expanded around the world. • Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention. • Laws were passed to protect children,

Psychoanalytical Theories Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.

Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Theory • Was based on his therapy with troubled adults. • He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.

Psychoanalytic Theories: • Freud’s Psychosexual Theory – Personality has 3 parts – There are 5 stages of psychosexual development – Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent – Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development

Freudian Stages Birth to 1½ yrs 1½ to 3 yrs 3 to 6 years 6 yrs to puberty Puberty onward Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage Infant’s pleasure centers on mouth Child’s pleasure focuses on anus Figure 2. 1 Child’s pleasure focuses on genitals Child A time of represses sexual reawakening; interest source of and develops sexual social and pleasure intellectual becomes skills someone outside of the family

Erikson Psychosocial Theory • Expanded on Freud's theories. • Believed that development is life -long. • Emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict.

Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are: 1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year) 2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years) 3. Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years) 4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years) 5. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years) 6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood) Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erikson

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development Ego Integrity vs. Despair Generativity vs. Stagnation Intimacy vs. Isolation Identity vs. Role Confusion Industry vs. Inferiority Initiative vs. Guilt Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Trust vs. Mistrust

Critique of Erikson • Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. • On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.

Cognitive Theories Beliefs that describe how children learn

Jean Piaget - 1896 -1980 The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic environmental factors). Goal of cognitive development – Biological survival Cognitive development as biological adaptation – Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences – Learner as ‘the little scientist’ Knowledge originates from the environment – Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium – Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and construction of knowledge

Cognitive Development Theory Two processes are essential for development: – Assimilation » Learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure. – Accommodation » Expanding understanding, based on new information. Jean Piaget (1896 -1980)

Piaget Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development skills: • Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect • Preoperational – 2 -7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively • Concrete operational – 7 -12 years – children learn to think logically • Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills

Lev Vygotsky - 1896 -1934 The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual development. From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on to their own children. Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process. Learning is constructed. Main points • Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.

What is Zone of Proximal Development? It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner. There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teacher’s assistance. Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions.

What is: Scaffolding Assistance that allows students to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently. Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’ needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide scaffolding by: • • Breaking content into manageable pieces Modeling skills Provide practice and examples with prompts Letting go when students are ready

Biological Theories Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth

Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell • Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable. • Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach to child study: using age-related averages of children's growth and behaviors to define what is normal.

Ethology • Examines how behavior is determined by a species' need for survival. • Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research. • Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period, ” for learning

Konrad Lorenz • Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting.

Attachment Theory • John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment. • Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child

John Watson • Early 20 th century, "Father of American Behaviorist theory. ” • Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on the digestive system of dogs. • Researched classical conditioning • Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations.

B. F. Skinner • Proposed that children "operate" on their environment, operational conditioning. • Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for accomplishments would stimulate further learning.

Theory of Behaviorism. B. F Skinner & others Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning experiences. Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-andeffect relationships.

Major elements of behaviorism include: – – Positive and negative reinforcement Use of stimulus and response Modeling Conditioning.

Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura • Stressed how children learn by observation and imitation. • Believed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate.

Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation Child observes someone admired Child imitates behavior that seems rewarded

Systems Theory The belief that development can't be explained by a single concept, but rather by a complex system.

Urie Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory • The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a child's development. • Both the environment and biology influence the child's development. • The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model • • • The microsystem - activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc. The mesosystem - relationships among the entities involved in the child's microsystem: parents' interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the daycare provider The exosystem - social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community resources The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources The chronosystem - changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like the birth of a sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner’s theory Howard Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view that usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal and mathematical.

Who is Howard Gardner? • Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education. • Based on his study of many people, Gardner developed theory of multiple intelligences. • Gardner defines intelligence as “ability to solve problems or to create products which are valued in one or more cultural settings. ” • According to Gardner, 8 different types of intelligence are displayed by humans.

Gardner’s Intelligences:

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence consists of the ability to: • detect patterns • reason deductively • think logically This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.

Linguistic Intelligence • involves having a mastery of language • This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. • It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information. Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T. S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill.

Spatial Intelligence • gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. • This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children. Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright

Musical Intelligence • encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm. ) Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence • is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements. • This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated. • The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or present ideas and emotions. • An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction. • You can include surgeons in this category but many people who are physically talented–"good with their hands"–don't recognize that this form of intelligence is of equal value to the other intelligences. Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

Interpersonal Intelligence • • The ability to work effectively with others to relate to other people display empathy and understanding notice their motivations and goals. This is a vital human intelligence displayed by good teachers, facilitators, therapists, politicians, religious leaders and sales people. Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.

Intrapersonal Intelligence The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able to: • • quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments review one's behavior and innermost feelings make plans and set goals know oneself Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields of endeavor have this form of intelligence. Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

Naturalist intelligence designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this ability productively–for example in hunting, farming, or biological science. Farmers, botanists, conservationists, biologists, environmentalists would all display aspects of the intelligence. Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.

Can we be more than one? Yes! • Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the eight intelligences very rarely operate independently. • Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems. • For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music • bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the movements successfully • interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his movements

Maslow’s Theory Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows: