Japanese Diplomacy between Universal Values and Asian Values

Japanese Diplomacy between Universal Values and Asian Values

Asian Values • Asian values as a political ideology of the 1990 s, defined elements of society, culture and history common to the nations of Southeast and East Asia. • It aimed to use commonalities, for example, the principle of collectivism, to unify people for their economic and social good and to create a pan-Asian identity. (Mahatir Mohamad and Lee Kuan Yew)

Asian values; • Predisposition towards single-party authoritarian government • Preference for social harmony • Concern with socio-economic prosperity and the collective well-being of the community • Loyalty and respect towards figures of authority • Preference for collectivism

• In Malaysia, this concept helped reconcile Islam, Confucianism, and Hinduism. • Lee maintained that more than economics or politics, a nation's culture would determine its fate. • The economic success of East and Southeast Asian nations in the 1960 s to 1980 s ←"Asian values"; a third-way, Asian political model 1925 - (1981 -2003, 2018 -) 1923 -2015 (1959 -90)

Universal Values oriented Diplomacy of Japan “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity”　 (Taro Aso, Minister for Foreign Affairs; Nov. 30, 2006) (1) "value oriented diplomacy, " which involves placing emphasis on the "universal values" such as democracy, freedom, human rights, the rule of law, and the market economy. (2) “successfully budding democracies” that line the outer rim of the Eurasian continent, forming an arc. Here Japan wants to design an "arc of freedom and prosperity".

Arc of Freedom and Prosperity (2006) Arc of Instability(2001) Baltic states Southeaster n Europe Northeast Asia Central Asia Middle East Southeast Asia Indian subcontinent US: Military Action Japan: Aid Program 6

(Aso’s address) • Japan’s contribution to the realization of stability and prosperity in the international community through initiatives for supporting the economic growth of developing countries and for addressing global issues based on the principle of human security. • Japan’s cooperation for realizing stability, economic growth and democratization in these areas.

(Aso’s address) • Concretely speaking, what I have in mind right now is Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (CLV). • Central Asia, and the countries of the Caucasus region, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan⇒ extremely important with regard to the supply of natural resources to the globe. • Japan will serve as an "escort runner" to support these countries. • We are looking to strengthen our cooperation with both the EU and NATO.

“Arc of Instability” Quadrennial Defense Review (2001) • Although the United States will not face a peer competitor in the near future, the potential exists for regional powers to develop sufficient capabilities to threaten stability in regions critical to U. S. interests. (→BRICS) • Asia is gradually emerging as a region susceptible to large-scale military competition. • Arc of instability that stretches from the Middle East to Northeast Asia; the region contains a volatile mix of rising and declining regional powers. 　☆(Clash of Civilizations⇒Arc of Instability, 　 　　　　enemy⇒competitor)

Five Principles of Japan's ASEAN Diplomacy (2013) • Given changes to the strategic environment in the Asia-Pacific region and ASEAN's economic growth, ASEAN's presence and role in the region have been enhanced. Japan further strengthens cooperation with ASEAN, not only on economic issues, but also other areas, such as security and political affairs. • Prime Minister Abe outlined the following "Five Principles" of Japan's ASEAN Diplomacy.

(1) Protect and promote together with ASEAN member states universal values, such as freedom, democracy and basic human rights; (2) Ensure in cooperation with ASEAN member states that the free and open seas, which are the most vital common asset, are governed by laws and rules and not by force, and to welcome the United States' rebalancing to the Asia-Pacific region;

(3) Further promote trade and investment, including flows of goods, money, people and services, through various economic partnership networks, for Japan's economic revitalization and prosperity of both Japan and ASEAN member states; (4) Protect and nurture Asia's diverse cultural heritages and traditions; (5) Promote exchanges among the young generations to further foster mutual understanding.

“Shared Values and Democracy in Asia” Symposium PM. Abe, January 19, 2016 • The values of freedom, democracy, and the rule of law were “universal” among the peoples of Asia and Africa in the true sense. • Alongside Asia’s growth and steady democratization, the universal values have become values that cover more people than any other region in the world, and “universal” in the true sense of the word. ★　universality and universalism (constructed universality)

Asian Values Debate • ‘Asian values debate’ originated in the World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna in 1993). • Chinese and Singaporean delegations objected to the universalistic interpretation of human rights advocated by the ‘West’. • In the name of cultural diversity, Chinese and Singaporean delegates propagated a culturespecific notion of human rights. • Secretary of State Warren Christopher said the universality of human rights set a single standard of acceptable behavior around the world.

(In Vienna) • Some countries say human rights should be interpreted differently in regions with non. Western cultures. The countries holding this view are led by China, Syria and Iran, and include Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Yemen, Vietnam and Cuba. 　 • These countries oppose what the West describe as the imposition of Western values. ☆(Uni-polar world in vain⇒Universal value)

Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (June 25, 1993) • "All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and interrelated. The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal manner. • While the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of States, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms. "

Asian Human Rights and Bangkok Declaration • During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, June 1993), ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration. • They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. • However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights—in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights.

Bangkok Declaration (2 April, 1993) • 10. Reaffirm the interdependence and indivisibility of economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights, and the need to give equal emphasis to all categories of human rights; • 12. Reiterate that self-determination is a principle of international law and a universal right recognized by the United Nations for peoples under alien or colonial domination and foreign occupation, by virtue of which they can freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development, and that its denial constitutes a grave violation of human rights;

ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (2013)

Revisiting the Asian Values Argument used by Asian Political Leaders and its Validity (by C. Y. Hoon, 2004) • The 'Asian values' theory makes four claims: First, human rights are not universal and neither can they be globalized. They emerge differently according to the context of particular social, economic, cultural and political conditions. • Second, Asian societies are not centered on the individual but on the family. The nation is like a big family. Interests of the family and the nation go before the interests of each individual.

• Third, Asian societies rank social and economic rights over individual's political rights. • Finally, the right of a nation to selfdetermination includes a government's domestic jurisdiction over human rights. This implies that other nations should not interfere with the internal affairs of a state. ★Some Asian political leaders insulate their regimes" from charges of human rights abuses and justify authoritarian rule by championing the superiority of 'Asian values’.

• 'Asian values' argument has important implication for many Asians who "harbor deep resentment against the West for its past colonialism and who have an inferiority complex to Western civilization. • The economic success of Asia has given the region a collective sense of confidence to challenge Western hegemonic thoughts and civilizations. • 'Asian values' serve as a discourse that differentiates between the unified and virtuous "East" from the decaying "West", in order to form self-identity. "

‘Asian values’ as reverse Orientalism Michael Hill* (2000) • As opposed to the earlier Protestant ethic, the modern Confucian ethic is designed to create and foster loyalty, dedication, responsibility, and commitment and to intensify identification with the organization. • Confucian ethic makes the economy and society operate much more smoothly than one whose principles of identification and association tend to lead to egalitarianism, to disunity, to confrontation. * Victoria University of Wellington

Protestant Ethic and Confucian Ethic • Kahn emphasized the personal qualities Confucian Ethic encouraged – those of a hardworking, responsible, skillful and ambitious member of society who would contribute to the group rather than pursuing individual, selfish interests. • Confucian Ethic contributed to a society that was based on complementarity rather than the fractious society characterized by the Western pattern of interest groups. • M. Weber (1905), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.

Look East Policy of Mahathir (1981) • Looking East does not mean following all Eastern habits blindly or trading solely with these countries, it was learning the good values of the East, particularly their work ethics and their technological skills.

Human Rights and Asian Values Amartya Sen (1997) Nobel prize in Economic Science (1998) • The most prominent of these contentions is the claim that Asian values do not give freedom the same importance as it is accorded in the West. • Given this difference in value systems, the argument runs, Asia must be faithful to its own system of political priorities. • The temptation to see Asia as one unit reveals, in fact, a distinctly Eurocentric perspective.

• Values spread by the European Enlightenment and other relatively recent developments cannot be considered part of the long-term Western heritage. • There are important antecedents of those commitments in the form of the advocacy of tolerance and individual freedom, but those antecedents can be found plentifully in Asian as well as Western cultures. • The so-called Asian values that are invoked to justify authoritarianism are not especially Asian in any significant sense.

Lectures on Zen Buddhism (Daisetsu SUZUKI, 1957) • As we compare the East and the West we find that each indicates his traditional background. • According to this, the Western mind is: analytical, 1870 -1966 discriminative, differential, individualistic, objective, scientific, generalizing, conceptual, legalistic, self-assertive, disposed to impose its will upon others, etc. • Against these Western traits those of the East can be characterized as follows: synthetic, totalizing, integrative, nonsystematic, dogmatic, intuitive, subjective, spiritually individualistic and socially group-minded, etc. , [Dichotomy and Complementary]

• The scientifically minded West applies its intelligence to inventing all kind of devices to elevate the standard of living and save itself from what it thinks to be unnecessary labor. • The East, on the other hand, does not mind engaging itself in menial and manual work of all kinds, it is apparently satisfied with the “underdeveloped” state of civilization. It does not like to be machine-minded, to turn itself into a slave to the machine. This love of work is perhaps characteristic of the East.

• Traditionally, Asiatic peoples love life as it is lived and do not wish to turn it into a means of accomplishing something else, which would divert the course of living to quite a different channel. • They like work for its own sake, though, objectively speaking, work means to accomplish something. But while working they enjoy the work and are not in a hurry to finish it. Mechanical devices are far more efficient and accomplish more. But the machine is impersonal and non-creative and has no meaning.

• In the West, “yes” is “yes” and “no” is “no”; “yes” can never be “no” or vice versa. • The East makes “yes” slide over to “no” and “no” to “yes”; there is no hard and fast division between “yes” and “no”. • It is in the nature of life that it is so. It is only in logic that division is ineradicable. Logic is human-made to assist in utilitarianistic activities.

Pancasila (Five Principles) • Belief in the One and Only God , • A just and civilized humanity , • A unified Indonesia, • Democracy, led by the wisdom of the representatives of the People , • Social justice for all Indonesians • Indonesian patriotism; • Internationalism emphasizing Justice and the virtue of humanity, • Deliberative consensus emphasizing a form of representative democracy in which ethnic dominance is absent and each member of the council possesses equal voting power, • Social Welfare premised on theory of the welfare state and emphasizing popular socialism, and • A Divinity that is an ultimate unity

• Pancasila was gradually used as a tool through which to assert and affirm the validity of democracy practiced through a lens of Indonesian familial values, a tool that could be used to limit the western democratic movement. • Democracy was morphed to conform to Asian values by stressing the people’s reliance on the strength of Indonesian tradition and culture.

Japanese Diplomacy and New Asian Regionalism : focusing on East Asia Community

• ASEM (Asia-Europe Meeting; 1996) • SAARC (South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation; 1985) • CAREC (Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation; 1997) • PIF (Pacific Islands Forum; 1999) • ASEAN+3 (CJK, 1997)

APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) In January 1989, Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke called for more effective economic cooperation across the Pacific Rim region. (21 member states)

Japan's New Regionalism: China Shock, Values, and the East Asian Community (Yul Sohn, Yonsei University) • Japan’s new thinking on regionalism appeared in the early 21 st century as China aggressively cultivated its influence in Southeast Asia. • Along with the economic weight that positions China increasingly at the core of regional economic integration, Beijing has gained diplomatic leadership. • Now Japan is leaning toward a regional design that would counter Chinese initiative.

• A “hard” balancing strategy through an alliance with the U. S. is insufficient, not only because the Chinese economy is indispensable for Japan’s prosperity but equally because China is rising via soft power. • All this makes it inevitable that Japan will battle for a regional vision that would secure its leadership role. • One continuing challenge has been how to persuade the peoples of East Asia to join Japan’s region.

• The Japanese were burdened by the heavy legacy of deceptive varieties of colonial ideologies. Japan was psychologically unprepared for genuine reconciliation and new relations with Asia. • Although many Japanese were extremely selfcritical of their country’s wartime activities, its conservative mainstream leaders failed to gain trust from the region. ⇔Japanese Orientalism • The intensity of anti-Japanese feeling has not decreased.

• Another challenge was concern about U. S. opposition. Japan has closely identified with the U. S. as being part of the West. • This has made Japan hesitate to advocate Asian regionalism that increasingly espouses alternative values (Asian values), or institutions that challenge the U. S. claim of universalism and market capitalism. • The U. S. has made it clear that any multilateral move threatening its vital interests was objectionable.

• China engaged deeply with ASEAN countries. In 2003, China became the first non-ASEAN country to accede to ASEAN’s Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. • Tokyo was shocked at Beijing’s aggressive inroads into Southeast Asia, once regarded as Japan’s backyard. • Japan saw China well on its way to becoming a formidable global economic power, profoundly shifting the distribution of power around the world.

“East Asia Community” by Koizumi Singapore, 14 Jan. 2002 • I propose the convening of an Initiative for 　(1942 - ) Development in East Asia meeting. • Our goal should be the creation of a “community that acts together and advances together. “ • The community should be “achieved by expanding East Asian cooperation founded on the Japan. ASEAN relationship. ” • Our pasts may be varied and divergent, but our futures can be united and supportive of each other. 43

• This was clearly a message that the U. S. should not be sidelined in East Asia. • Along with ASEAN’s 10 member countries, “Australia and New Zealand are partners in various forms of regional cooperation. • India plays an important role in regional cooperation. ” ⇒Japan’s strategy to counterbalance China.

Members of EAS 45

Border problems and East Asia Cold war and Divided states: internal and external　border problems　　 China(Taiwan) , Korea(North-South), Japan (Okinawa) ; Territorial disputes Post-Cold war and New regional border ASEAN and Northeast Asia ⇒EA enlargement ASEAN+3(C, K, J)+3(I, A, N)+2(R, US) 　 Japan-China rivalry and a new regionalism Rise of China and counterbalance

2011

One Belt and One Road Initiative

• The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) or the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21 st-century (2017: First Summit) • Maritime Silk Road ; a development strategy proposed by the Chinese Government which focuses on connectivity and cooperation between Eurasian countries. • "Belt and Road" is a massive trade and infrastructure project that aims to link China — physically and financially — to dozens of economies across Asia, Europe, Africa, and Oceania.

China as a Great Power: Xi Jinping and US President Obama joint Press Conference (June 8, 2013) • (Xi Jinping) I and President Obama both agreed that China and the U. S. should find a new path different from that of conflicts and confrontation between great powers in history. • Both sides agreed that we will build together a new type of relationship between great powers based on mutual respect, cooperation and winwin results for the benefit of the people of the two countries as well as of the world.

Zeng Li (Brookings Institute) Chinese Enthusiasm and American Cynicism: The “New Type of Great Power Relations” • From the rise and fall of its many dynasties to its forced opening up to the West in the wake of the Opium Wars (1840 -42), China has always seen itself as a civilization deeply entangled and affected by history. • Recognizing the historically recurring clashes between an existing great power and an emerging power, China looks to the “new type” framework to avoid historical determinism and to seek a lessdisruptive rise in an increasingly integrated world.

• China wants to be viewed as an equal. By using the term “Great Power” to primarily refer to China and the United States, China aims to elevate itself to a level playing field. • It is not the old type of Great Power relations as envisaged by power transition theory, which involves power struggles, conflict and a zero-sum game. • This concept is underpinned by a shifting Chinese identity—an identity that considers China as deserving of a greater voice and greater respect in global politics.