Jan Roscoe Publications OCR Examinations AS and A

Jan Roscoe Publications OCR Examinations AS and A Level Physical Education AS / A year 1 (A 1) AS H 155 / A Component 01 Physiological factors affecting performance 2. 1 Skill acquisition Types and methods of practice Transfer of skills

2. 1 Skill acquisition INDEX 3 6 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 22 23 27 32 33 39 index OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background SKILL KEYWORDS DEFINITIONS CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM PRESENTATION OF SKILL MANIPULATION OF SKILL PRESENTATION OF SKILLS PRACTICE METHODS KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS TRANSFER IMPACT OF PRACTICE ON LEARNING previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 2

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 3

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background USES OF THE WORD SKILL • technique • example: feint or dodge • sport • example: classifications • quality • example: skilful performance index previous next CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL • efficient – no waste of energy – the movement seems effortless • coordinated – flowing and fluid movement • controlled – the performer has control over the movement • good technique – the movement follows an accepted correct technical model 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 4

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL • consistent – can be repeated correctly • learned – skill has been practised until retained in long term memory • predetermined – the performer has a goal • aesthetic – the movement is pleasing and looks good SKILLED PERFORMERS • can vary the outcome • can vary the timing and scope of action • can focus attention appropriately • can anticipate Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 5

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SKILL KEYWORDS DEFINITIONS BALANCE • a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness Helen Roscoe Photography CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL • the means by which skills which have common characteristics are grouped together CLOSED SKILL • a skill performed in a fixed environment, example: a discus throw CONTINUOUS SKILLS • skills with no obvious beginnings and endings index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 6

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SKILL KEYWORDS - DEFINITIONS CONTINUUM OF SKILLS • a range of skill characteristics COORDINATION • a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of information through the nervous system to create required movements DISCRETE SKILLS • skills with clear beginnings and endings, example: discus throw EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS • skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening in the environment, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game FINE SKILL • skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example: potting a ball at snooker index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 7

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SKILL KEYWORDS - DEFINITIONS GROSS SKILL • involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body, example: discus throw LEARNING • a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice or experience OPEN SKILLS • skills in which the form of the action is determined by the environment and therefore is constantly changing, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game SELF-PACED SKILLS • the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example: discus throw SERIAL SKILLS • where several distinct elements are joined together to form an integrated movement, example: triple jump index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 8

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM SIMPLE sprinting throwing snooker gymnastic tumble COMPLEX gymnastic floor exercise Wikimedia commons/Jeppe 2 Jan Roscoe Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 9

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM SIMPLE sprinting • • throwing snooker gymnastic tumble COMPLEX gymnastic floor exercise simple skills – are straightforward skills – with few subroutines – requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the part of the performer complex skills – are complicated skills – requiring a lot of attention or practice – the complexity of which can be perceived differently by different individuals – require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of which may be habitual and learned – which affects the ease with which the performer performs the skill index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 10

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM OPEN soccer goal save pass index previous tennis stroke tennis serve next soccer penalty CLOSED shot putt 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 11

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM • open skills – require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information which stimulates the skill response) – occur in an unpredictable environment – the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is happening around the performer – have no clear beginning or end are usually externally paced • closed skills – are prelearned and habitual – usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning – have no external requirements – have a clear beginning and end – occur in a predictable environment – the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 12

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM EXTERNALLY-PACED yachting tennis receiving serve index previous SELF-PACED soccer diving game next tennis serve weight lifting 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 13

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM EXTERNALLY-PACED yachting tennis receiving serve • • SELF-PACED soccer diving game tennis serve weight lifting externally-paced skills – the speed and precision with which the skill is executed – are controlled by the environment or surroundings of the performer – opposing teams or individuals in a game – or the weather or wind conditions self-paced skills – the rate of action is controlled by the performer index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 14

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM GROSS weight lifting javelin throw netball pass Helen Roscoe Photography index cricket stroke golf shot ten pin bowling FINE darts or snooker Wikimedia commons/Darksidex previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 15

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM GROSS weight lifting • • javelin throw netball pass cricket stroke golf shot ten pin bowling FINE darts or snooker gross skills use large muscle movements associated with: – strength – endurance – power fine skills use small delicate muscle movements associated with: – speed – accuracy – efficiency index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 16

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM DISCRETE weight javelin lifting throw SERIAL high jump CONTINUOUS basketball running dribble Helen Roscoe Photography Jan Roscoe Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 17

2. 1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM DISCRETE weight javelin lifting throw • • • index SERIAL high jump CONTINUOUS basketball running dribble discrete skills – have a clear beginning and end – can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills – the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again serial skills – have a number of discrete skills – which are linked together into a performance consisting of several phases continuous skills – cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts – but last a relatively long time – as long as the performer wishes previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 18

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM LOW ORGANISATION swimming cycling stroke HIGH ORGANISATION gymnastic move pole vault Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 19

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM LOW ORGANISATION swimming cycling stroke • • index HIGH ORGANISATION gymnastic move pole vault skills with low organisation – are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure – subroutines tend to be discrete – and may be practised separately skills with high organisation – have a complex organisational structure – subroutines are closely linked – and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be practised as a whole) – require far more attention and concentration to be performed successfully previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 20

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRESENTATION OF SKILLS • the ways in which a skill can be taught to maximise performance FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF METHOD • the type of skills to be taught • the complexity of the skill • the environment • the ability level of the performer • the motivational level of the performer • refer to previous presentation for the details index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 21

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PART METHODS MANIPULATION OF SKILLS pure part method A ---> B ---> C ---> D -----> ABCD progressive part method A --> B --> AB --> C --> ABC --> D --> ABCD whole part whole method ABCD --> A --> B --> C --> D --> ABCD PROGRESSIVE PART METHOD • suitable for complex tasks / skills • helps chaining of complex skills learned independently • limited attentional demands • coordination of spatial / temporal components • good transfer to whole index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 22

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRESENTATION OF SKILLS WHOLE METHOD index skill or task: performer will: is of low complexity or simple task has high organisation has interrelated subroutines has discrete skills short duration or rapid or ballistic cannot be broken down into parts temporal or spatial coordination be experienced have high levels of attention be in later stages of learning be older be highly motivated use distributed practice required previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 23

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRESENTATION OF SKILLS PART METHOD skill or task: performer will: has high complexity has low organisation has independent subroutines serial tasks be a beginner have limited attention span in early stages of learning have problems with particular aspect of a skill have limited motivation use massed practice is slow is of long duration contains dangerous skills index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 24

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRESENTATION OF SKILLS WHOLE METHOD advantages disadvantages no time wasted in assembling parts useful for discrete skills ineffective with complex tasks retains feeling of flow subroutines linked easily learner develops own schema transfer from practice to real index previous next not appropriate for dangerous tasks not good for performer of low ability situations likely to be positive 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 25

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRESENTATION OF SKILLS PART METHOD index advantages disadvantages serial tasks can be broken down and learned in components demand on learner reduced good for simple skills confidence may grow quickly motivation evolves from progress suitable for dangerous skills fatigue reduced for demanding skills teacher can focus on specific point provides stages of success transfer from part to whole may be ineffective highly organised skills may not be possible to break down awareness of end product loss of continuity or flow previous next loss of kinaesthesis can be demotivating possibly time consuming 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 26

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRACTICE METHODS PRACTICE CONDITIONS • different ways of setting up training sessions to achieve optimum performance index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 27

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRACTICE METHODS VARIABLE PRACTICE • in this method practice conditions are varied to encourage the formation of schema (patterns of memory including reference to the nerve pathways involved in performing a skill) • practice conditions should be as realistic as possible • in as many different situations as possible • as near to the competitive or match situation as possible • relevant to open skills Jan Roscoe index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 28

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRACTICE METHODS FIXED PRACTICE • in this method practice conditions stay the same to encourage the formation of schema relevant to closed skills • practice conditions should be as realistic as possible • and the same skill is repeated many times • as near to the competitive or match situation as possible Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 29

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRACTICE METHODS MASSED PRACTICE • practice is done with no rest intervals with sessions long in duration index • good for ‘grooving’ of skills and to encourage an habitual response • good for discrete skills of short duration • can lead to fatigue and boredom • there may be elements of negative transfer previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 30

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PRACTICE METHODS DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE • training sessions which include rest intervals which could involve mental practice • good for the beginner and most skill learning • gives time to recover physically and mentally • good for potentially dangerous situations Jan Roscoe index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 31

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 32

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER • influence of one skill on the performance of another index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 33

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER POSITIVE TRANSFER index • occurs when learning in one task is enhanced by learning in another task • example: learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 34

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER NEGATIVE TRANSFER • occurs when the learning of a new task is interfered with by the knowledge of a similar activity • example: the flexible use of the wrist needed for badminton may interfere with the firm wrist needed for tennis index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 35

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER PROACTIVE TRANSFER • influence of one skill on a skill yet to be learned • example: having learned the forehand drive in tennis, the action is then modified to the forehand drive with top spin RETROACTIVE TRANSFER • influence of one skill on a skill that has previously been learned • example: a hockey player learns the flicking skill which may have a negative effect on the previously learned push (the push pass may be lifted unnecessarily) index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 36

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER BILATERALTRANSFER (LIMB TO LIMB) • this is the transfer which takes place from one limb to another • sometimes called lateralisation • example: a soccer player learns to kick a ball with the nonpreferred foot, the actions are learnt through reference by the brain to the preferred foot ZERO TRANSFER • no transfer at all may occur even between skills which appear to be similar • example: learning at squash may have zero transfer from weight training index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 37

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education TRANSFER SKILL TO SKILL • between two skills • evidence suggests little long-term transfer PRACTICE TO PERFORMANCE • positive transfer is likely to occur only if environmental conditions are similar in both situations • practices should simulate the stimuli and cues which occur in a performance index previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 38

2. 1 Skill acquisition OCR AS / A 1 Level Physical Education IMPACT OF PRACTICE ON LEARNING PRACTICE • repetition of a skill will improve the outcome of learning • practice makes perfect, perfect practice makes a perfect performance • • • index the structure of practice should depend on the task, the learning situation, and the stage of learning of the performer you should use time efficiently you should attempt to construct the practice tasks to be as near to the desired technical model as possible • the method of guidance used will depend on the learning task, and the stage of learning as above • practice tasks should be seen to be relevant to the specific needs of the performance previous next 2. 1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 39