Jan Roscoe Publications AQA Examinations AS and A
Jan Roscoe Publications AQA Examinations AS and A Level Physical Education AS / A year 1 (A 1) AS 7581 Section 3. 1 Factors affecting participation in physical activity and sport 3. 1. 3 Sport and society 3. 1. 3. 2 The impact of sport on society and of society on sport 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 Sociological theory applied to equal opportunities (1)
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education INDEX 3 7 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 26 27 28 SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS SOCIAL ACTION THEORY IN SPORT CAUSES OF INEQUALITY OPPORTUNITY PROVISION ESTEEM DISCRIMINATION - DEFINITIONS PARTICIPATION IN SPORT DISABLED PERFORMERS DISABILITY IN SPORT BENEFITS OF RAISING PARTICIPATION IN SPORT NGBs FORMED ESPECIALLY FOR DISABLED SPORT DEVELOPMENT OF DISABLED SPORT BARRIERS DUE TO ETHNICITY PARTICIPATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MODERN SPORT LACK OF PARTICIPATION BY ETHNIC MINORITY GROUPS IMPROVING ETHNIC MINORITY PARTICIPATION IN SPORT SCHEMES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION index previous next 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 40 41 FEMALE EQUALITY AND STEREOTYPING FEMALE SEXPLOITATION FEMALE PARTICIPATION FURTHER BARRIERS TO FEMALES IN SPORT THE MEDIA AND SPONSORSHP FEMALE SOCCER ISLAMIC CULTURS AND FEMALE PARTICIPATION MULTI-DISCRIMINATION DISADVANTAGED LOWER CLASS SPORT THE LOWER CLASS STRUGGLE FOR SUCCESS ASSISTANCE TO DISADVANTAGED GROUPS TO INCREASE SUCCESS 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 2
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS SOCIETY • the structural composition of a community of people including a national identity • culture explains why a society functions as it does • lifestyle is predicted and determined by the unique patterns of a society • reflecting the customs, attitudes and values of the people • societies have organisations / institutions which have a degree of autonomy – including sport SOCIALISATION • the process of children (usually) learning and assimilating the rules and norms of a society • this can be done by participation in the games and interactions between a child and his/her parents / siblings / peer group / teachers / sports coaches index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 3
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS SOCIAL PROCESSES • these are the means by which socialisation occurs • such as playing / talking / interacting with members of family / peer group / school teachers / older children and so on SOCIAL ISSUES • these are issues which affect the overall composition and attitudes within a society • examples would include: • disability • ethnicity • gender • disadvantage • inequality • prejudice • stereotyping index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 4
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS SOCIAL STRUCTURES / STRATIFICATION • this title refers to the ways in which society groups itself for the purposes of daily activity • by virtue of friendship groups, family groups, interest groups (like sport and a particular sport or event within a sport for example) • or in economic layers depending on a person’s own wealth (by virtue of his or her job) or a person’s parental wealth • • • index or socioeconomic class which can determine leisure activities / type of home / availability of opportunity, amount of leisure time previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 5
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS PRIMARY / SECONDARY STRATIFICATION • • index primary influences for socialisation lie within the immediate family these influences will determine a person’s attitudes and manner in general secondary influences are those which occur outside the family, such as peer group / friendship group / school friends and will determine general cultural matters such as relationships and language development previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 6
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIAL ACTION THEORY IN SPORT • in social action theory, bureaucratic organisations are the dominant institutions in society • bureaucracies (institutions) consist of individuals carrying out rational social actions designed to achieve the goals of bureaucracies • in this theory, the whole development of modern society is in terms of a move towards rational social action • thus, modern societies are undergoing the process of rationalisation index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 7
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SOCIAL ACTION THEORY IN SPORT • • in this theory, sport as an element of social control becomes embedded in religion (as a bureaucracy) and the growth of capitalism in which sport becomes an institution within which commercialism and elitism are a predominant part • • hence sport is a reflection of a social organisation with all the features of a society and culture in which racism, misogeny, ageism and features which deride the disabled and lower socioeconomic classes appear • hence, Weber’s theory includes features of discrimination and so on within sport as a rational institution as well as the rational inclusion of all the good features of sport such as the strive for perfection, the instinct to perform, and the socialisation elements which bring participants together • index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 8
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education CAUSES OF INEQUALITY • people may or may not be able or desire to participate in sport • we tend to discuss this in terms of: – opportunity – provision – esteem istockphoto. com/Mike. Dabell index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 9
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education OPPORTUNITY • this could include: • the availability of adequate facilities • the acceptance of religious beliefs (for example competing on a Sunday for some groups) • the amount of free time available • the amount of disposable income available • the possibility of a career hence time and place conflict • the availability of qualified coaches • the exclusivity of some sports (for example, rowing, yachting, polo, equestrianism) index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 10
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PROVISION index • this could include the availability of appropriate: – lessons – sessions – facilities • the appropriateness of these factors is based upon their suitability in terms of: – religious constraints – time or money constraints (affordability) – disability constraints – availability of local facilities – availability of appropriate equipment – provision of coaching previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 11
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education ESTEEM • esteem is concerned with the views and judgements of self or society • this is more personal to the athlete than opportunity and provision • and to do with attitudes of others towards the performer or the activity • it may include: • suitable role models • belief in ability to perform the task • traditional stereotypes affecting the image of the sport for a specific group (for example, ‘black people can’t swim’) • the athlete’s own belief in how appropriate the activity is for them • acceptance of activity or performer by peer groups • confidence that a performer will be accepted by those already participating in an activity index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 12
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISCRIMINATION - DEFINITIONS index • discrimination is the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex • stereotyping – ‘a fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people’ (Cardwell, 1996) • prejudice – a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience • equal opportunities – being able to have the same access to sport (or other social activity) regardless of social factors (gender, age, class, race or ethnicity, disability) previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 13
3. 1. 3 Sport and society n n AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education making distinctions and or treating unfairly a specific group n n n acting upon prejudices index previous next giving one particular group opportunities which are not available to all groups PREJUDICE = n an opinion or attitude n often displayed as a dislike towards a group or person n because of his or her: n skin colour n race n ethnicity 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 14
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PARTICIPATION IN SPORT • the differentiation between people on the following grounds is an issue in today’s society: – disability – race / ethnicity – gender – disadvantaged index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 15
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISABLED PERFORMERS index • disability is defined as: • ‘any restriction or lack of ability (due to an impairment) to perform an activity in a manner or within a range considered to be normal for a human being’ • ‘an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function’ WHO (World Health Organisation) - 1980 previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 16
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISABLED PERFORMERS • it is estimated that there are 10% of all people in the UK who have some form of impairment or other • almost all such people rely on state benefits to some degree or other • therefore the opportunity for participation is reduced because of the cost Helen Roscoe Photography index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 17
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISABILITY IN SPORT n n n some sports are unavailable to the disabled performer due to a lack of suitability or the nature of the game n facilities or equipment may not by adapted to suit the needs of a disabled performer there are many issues with actually travelling to events or using sports facilities n n there a limited number of sporting events for disabled athletes index previous next n staff at sports centres may not be sufficiently trained to deal with the special requirements of disabled athletes 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 18
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education BENEFITS OF RAISING PARTICIPATION IN SPORT • health and fitness • it can allow disabled people to feel integrated into society • it can improve self-esteem and self-worth THE AIMS OF DISABILITY SPORT ORGANISATIONS • improve awareness of disabled people in sport • provide more opportunities for disabled people to become more active in sport • educate the public about disabled people and their capabilities • improve the image of disabled sport • promote the advantages of sport to disabled people index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 19
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education NGBs FORMED ESPECIALLY FOR DISABLED SPORT index • Disability Sport England (DSE) • British Paralympic Association (BPA) • The British Amputee Sports Association • The UK Sports Association for People with Mental Handicap • Cerebral Palsy Sport • The British Les Autres Sports Association previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 20
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DEVELOPMENT OF DISABLED SPORT increased availability of specialist coaching more information published about disabled sport increased development of specialist sports programmes and training opportunities improvement in facility access and design increased media coverage and publicity raised profile of Special Olympics and Paralympics index previous next increased awareness amongst local authorities about disabled sport increased links with clubs and development officers 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 21
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education BARRIERS DUE TO ETHNICITY • racism is the suggestion that one particular ethnic group is superior to another on the basis of skin colour or religion • racial stereotyping is a situation whereby individuals are categorised into what they are capable of doing according to religion or skin colour – for example, the notion that all black people are good at sprinting – because some obviously are! Wikimedia commons/Brunel University index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 22
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PARTICIPATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MODERN SPORT • national teams in athletics and soccer have a high proportion of black Afro-Caribbean participants • other sports like Rugby Union and League and Cricket have fewer black Afro-Caribbean participants at national level but significant numbers these same sports have far fewer persons of Asian backgrounds, particularly women • • hockey, swimming, equestrianism, rowing have relatively few black participants • this pattern probably reflects class discrimination - lack of opportunity because of the expense of the sport, or its traditional class base index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 23
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PARTICIPATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MODERN SPORT • many parts of our modern society are afflicted with institutional racism • this is not necessarily a conscious discrimination against non-white people, but more a feeling by white people that certain situations and activities are based around white people • it is a tradition that white people undertake these activities and exclude non-whites • certain people treat black people very stereotypically - this is a form of institutional racism index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 24
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education PARTICIPATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MODERN SPORT ‘stacking’ n whereby ethnic groups are advanced into certain positions regardless of capability n for example, too few black people are in management or coaching in sport n compared with overall percentage participation of black people in sport index previous next n n reduced participation this is particularly the case with female ethnic minority groups 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 25
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education LACK OF PARTICIPATION BY ETHNIC MINORITY GROUPS ROLE MODELS • the lack of role models for ethnic minorities in specific sports • for example, is the abundance of black track athletes a result of the large number of role models in this sport? • there is a lack of Asian players within Premiership soccer • individuals with the same ethnic background tend to copy the behaviour of people in the media spotlight • youngsters aspire to be like their idols hence, young Asian boys may wish to emulate Amir Khan (boxing) or Monty Panesar (cricket) and young black girls may wish to grow up like Kelly Holmes (athletics) or one of the Williams sisters (tennis) • index previous next Wikimedia commons/Russell Garner 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 26
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education SCHEMES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION Kick Racism out of Football n recent events in football games have ensured this scheme’s success n the wearing of black and white wrist bands has also highlighted this issue Sporting Equals ‘working together for racial equality in sport’ n this organisation aims to help integrate ethnic minorities into sport index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 27
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education IMPROVING ETHNIC MINORITY PARTICIPATION IN SPORT • media coverage of ethnic minority sports is improving (ie Channel 4’s coverage of Kabaddi) Wikimedia commons/ • some companies are using athletes of ethnic origin to promote products and sports • more ethnic minority individuals are being appointed into managerial or sport development jobs index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 28
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education FEMALE EQUALITY AND STEREOTYPING • in the 21 st century a woman is no longer a second class citizen but, there is still resistance to female equality • unfortunately, the stereotyping of female roles in society are such that a female’s role would be subservient to the male • there is still the role of housewife and mother – not athlete and sports personality • dance and gymnastics are still considered to be more acceptable activities for women • although attitudes are changing with female access to soccer, rugby and boxing Wikimedia commons/Alan Cordova index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 29
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education FEMALE SEXPLOITATION • stereotyping of female roles has led to misleading exploitation of women sportspeople by the media • particularly the tabloid media will use the sexual imagery of a female sports star to enhance items of ‘public interest’ • for example, the use of the image of a naked Vicky Pendleton (Olympic Champion cycling sprint) to advertise a product • we haven’t reproduced this image here although her bike concealed what it was supposed to conceal • the point is that perhaps she could have the same impact fully clothed!!! Wikimedia commons/ index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 30
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education FEMALE PARTICIPATION n n more male role models than female more men are in leadership roles within sport the glass ceiling n n more maleorientated sports than female women barred from certain activities (until recently) for example, hammer throwing and pole vault in athletics n n n index some NGBs slow to accept female sport as they attract less attention than male sport previous next n more male coaches than female the glass ceiling 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 31
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education FURTHER BARRIERS TO FEMALES IN SPORT lack of self-confidence • in ability in sport lack of motivation • perhaps due to the low status of women’s sport in comparison to men’s unfeminine • worried sport makes women look ‘manly’ poor self-image • some women worry they are too unfit and unhealthy to participate type of sports offered • many of the more accepted women’s sports are individual – yet some women prefer a group or team ethos index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 32
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education THE MEDIA AND SPONSORSHP • women’s sport is grossly under-represented both in the newspapers and on the television • by increasing the amount of publicity in women’s sport, the number of female role models will increase this will encourage females to participate and also educate other members of society on the value of female sport • Wikimedia commons/fergie lancealot • • with increasing exposure, more companies would offer sponsorship deals to women this will aid the process of turning female sport from predominantly amateur to predominantly professional index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 33
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education FEMALE SOCCER • this is the largest expanding female sport in the USA • not met by the same gender prejudices as female soccer in Europe • school, collegiate and national level female soccer teams have all seen a massive increase in number of players in recent years Wikimedia commons/John Mena index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 34
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education ISLAMIC CULTURES AND FEMALE PARTICIPATION • due to the nature of the Islamic religion, Muslim women have encountered many barriers to their participation in sport • • the role of the female within Islamic society has meant that Muslim women are vastly under-represented within sport Iran v Turkey in the 2010 Youth Olympic Games Wikimedia commons/ ﻣﺎﻧﻔی index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 35
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education ISLAMIC CULTURES AND FEMALE PARTICIPATION • the Youth Sport Trust (YST) has recognised the lack of female Muslims in sports • YST is advising schools and clubs on how to promote physical activity for this minority group through initiatives such as Nike Girls (Nike/YST, 2000) • • index this has led to many schools changing their policies on PE kit, times of extra-curricular clubs and the PE curriculum they deliver previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 36
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education MULTI-DISCRIMINATION index • some ethnic groups have strong views about the participation of women in sports • particularly where undertaking the sport would involve exposing the body to view • this is an example of multi-discrimination against certain ethnic women • if such people were also elderly and poor, the example would be widened previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 37
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education DISADVANTAGED • whilst society has moved on from the 19 th century, there are still massive divides across the different economic classes • there is still the upper class wealth, often meaning – better education – better access to facilities – more free time • the lower or working class still have – insufficient time – insufficient money to participate in most leisure activities and hence are disadvantaged • • index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 38
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education LOWER CLASS SPORT • the lower class has received the least opportunities in sport • they have been victims of discrimination and prejudice • meaning that they have been restricted in their access to a range of sports due to their socio-economic status • this is often a result of tradition and a lack of disposable income • activities usually considered to be lower class are: – rugby league – darts – coarse fishing – snooker • spectatorism at some professional sports (soccer for example) has traditionally been working class Wikimedia commons/Jeppe 2 index previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 39
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education THE LOWER CLASS STRUGGLE FOR SUCCESS index • some sports remain exclusive because they are expensive • this is the reason for the predominance of independently educated Team GB medallists in the London 2012 Olympic Games • expenses range from membership, to equipment, to coaching, to travel • participation is therefore lower due to the fact that people in lower socio-economic groups have less disposable income, and are therefore disadvantaged previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 40
3. 1. 3 Sport and society AQA AS / A 1 Level Physical Education ASSISTANCE TO DISADVANTAGED GROUPS TO INCREASE SUCCESS index • the government and various NGBs have set up several schemes in order to promote sport to the lower classes • these schemes are usually part of other schemes – such as Sports Colleges (as Academies) and TOPSport • there are some specific schemes such as Sportivate • offering free or subsidised coaching to 11 – 25 year olds • NGBs used to be able to receive extra government funding if they could show they are dealing with issues of low participation in lower class areas previous next 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 sociological theories and equal opportunities 1 41
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