James A Henretta Eric Hinderaker Rebecca Edwards Robert
James A. Henretta Eric Hinderaker Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self America’s History Eighth Edition CHAPTER 24 The World at War, 1937‒ 1945 Copyright © 2014 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
I. The Road to War A. The Rise of Fascism 1. Japan and Italy – 1931, Japan began military expansion by occupying Manchuria – full invasion of China took place in 1937 – Benito Mussolini, leader of Italy since 1922, invaded Ethiopia in 1935. 2. Hitler’s Germany – In 1933, Hitler became Germany’s chancellor – Germany suffered from post-World War I economic problems, labor unrest, and unemployment – Hitler desired to overturn the Versailles treaty and rid Germany of the “inferior races” (Jews, Gypsies, and Slavs) – he blamed Jews for Germany’s economic problems – in 1935, he began to rebuild Germany’s military against the Versailles treaty.
I. The Road to War B. War Approaches – Roosevelt’s administration faced widespread isolationist sentiment at home – 1935 Neutrality Act imposed an embargo on selling arms to warring countries – 1936, Congress banned loans to belligerents – 1937, it imposed a “cash-and-carry” requirement when warring countries purchased nonmilitary goods from the United States
I. The Road to War 1. The Popular Front – American intellectuals and social activists wanted the United States to enter war against fascism – Communist Party membership in the United States peaked at 100, 000 members – Soviet leaders encouraged Communists in the United States and Western Europe to join in a Popular Front against fascism; they did so in the Spanish Civil War (1936– 1939).
I. The Road to War B. War Approaches (cont. ) 2. The Failure of Appeasement – Germany annexed Austria in 1938 – France and Britain allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) if Hitler pledged to seek no more territory – Hitler continued his march into Czechoslovakia toward Poland – 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed a nonaggression pact; Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1939; on September 3, Britain and France declared war.
I. The Road to War – 3. Isolationism and Internationalism – U. S. interventionists = isolationists (“America Firsters”) convinced FDR to stay out – FDR reelected in 1940 - defined “four essential human freedoms: ” • speech, religion, from want, and from fear – March 1941, the Lend-Lease Act was passed to aid Britain – Atlantic Charter between U. S. and Britain called for economic collaboration, national selfdetermination, and political stability after the war.
I. The Road to War C. The Attack on Pearl Harbor 1. Provocation – FDR criticized Japan’s invasion of China but did not intervene when the city of Nanjing was attacked – 300, 000 Chinese were massacred and thousands of women were raped – Japan pursued the goal of a “Greater East Asia Co. Prosperity Sphere” from Korea to Indonesia – the United States froze Japanese assets and started an embargo.
I. The Road to War 2. Plans for war – General Tojo became prime minister and began making war plans against the United States – Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 – more than 2, 400 Americans were killed – declaration of war against Japan brought the United States into war against Germany and Italy (Axis powers).
II. Organizing for Victory A. Financing the War 1. Business and industry – Significant cooperation had to exist between the government and U. S. industries to mobilize for war – taxes on personal income and businesses paid for half the war – the rest was borrowed from the wealthy and other citizens who purchased bonds; the number of civilians working for the government increased to 3. 8 million.
II. Organizing for Victory 2. War Production Board (WPB) – Awarded defense contracts, allocated resources (copper, rubber, oil), convinced businesses to convert to military production – worked mostly with large corporations (ex: Henry J. Kaiser, contractor) – this was the beginning of the military-industrial complex of the Cold War period.
II. Organizing for Victory B. Mobilizing the American Fighting Force 1. Soldiers and workers – More than 15 million men and women enlisted in the armed forces; millions of civilians had to be mobilized in their workplaces – nearly 1 million African American military were segregated; NAACP: “A Jim Crow army cannot fight for a free world; ” – Native Americans created undecipherable codes for the military to use. 2. Women – 350, 000 women enlisted: 140, 000 women served in the Women’s Army Corps (WAC) – 100, 000 served in the Navy’s Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES); 75, 000 were nurses – 1, 000 were Women’s Air Force Service Pilots (WASPs); women had limited duties and could not command men; women were barred from combat duty.
II. Organizing for Victory C. Workers and the War Effort 1. Rosie the Riveter – Women worked in the defense industry; many left roles as housewives and in lower-paying jobs to seek lucrative work for the defense industry; they were riveters, ship welders, and drill-press operators – 1945, women made up 36 percent of the labor force; they faced sexual harassment and wage discrimination; – when men returned, women were expected to give up their jobs. – 2. Wartime Civil Rights – Double V campaign called for victory over Nazism abroad and racism at home; – FDR put forth Executive Order 8802 prohibiting discrimination in defense industry and government jobs – NAACP grew to 450, 000; Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) founded – Mexican Americans challenged discrimination, formed the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) – 3. Organized Labor – Union membership increased; unions made a no-strike pledge for duration of war – National War Labor Board (NWLB) was created to set wages, work hours, and working conditions; consumer prices rose, as did corporate profits
II. Organizing for Victory D. Politics in Wartime 1. A second Bill of Rights – 1944 State of the Union speech called for guaranteeing Americans access to education, jobs, food, clothing, housing, and medical care – FDR desired to extend the New Deal directly to individuals – “GI Bill of Rights” provided education, job training, medical care, pensions, and mortgages. 2. Election of 1944 – Democratic Party wanted Senator Harry Truman (D-MO) as running mate instead of VP Henry Wallace – Governor Thomas Dewey (R-NY); FDR won 53. 5 percent of popular vote.
III. Life on the Home Front A. “For the Duration” 1. Popular culture – Office of War Information (OWI) encouraged advertisers to link their products to the war effort – movies reinforced the connections between the home front and the war effort – Why We Fight documentaries directed by Frank Capra; John Wayne, Anthony Quinn, and Spencer Tracy all played military heroes in movies. 2. Consumer goods – Shortages resulted from rationing and regulation – rubber shortages meant many people could/did not drive cars – shoes were rationed; meat, butter, and sugar were also rationed; a black market for goods developed.
III. Life on the Home Front B. Migration and the Wartime City 1. Racial Conflict – Many Americans migrated for work and military service; more than in previous years, racial and ethnic groups lived and worked near each other – competition occurred for jobs and housing; riots broke out; in Los Angeles, there was conflict between Hispanic teens (dressed in “zoot suits”) and whites. 2. Gay and Lesbian Communities – large cities New York and Chicago developed gay neighborhoods – military had difficulty screening out homosexuals
III. Life on the Home Front C. Japanese Removal 1. Anti-Asian sentiment – West Coast residents began to fear further attack by Japanese following the bombing of Pearl Harbor; history of anti-Asian sentiment in states like California worsened during the war. 2. Executive Order 9066 and relocation – EO 9066: War Department had the authority to force Japanese and Japanese Americans into relocation camps for the rest of the war; – War Relocation Authority (WRA) policy caused shortage of agricultural labor; 4, 300 Japanese students allowed to attend colleges outside the West Coast military zone; internees joined the armed services. 3. Hirabayashi v. United States – Pacifist student Gordon Hirabayashi refused to evacuate but turned himself in – Supreme Court, ruled that internment was legal because of “military necessity; ” – years later, Congress awarded $20, 000 to survivors in 1988 with a public apology.
IV. Fighting and Winning the War A. Wartime Aims and Tensions 1. The Big Three – FDR, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Britain, Premier Joseph Stalin of Soviet Union – agreed that defeating Germany was top priority (then Japan), did not agree over how to achieve this goal – Stalin wanted a second front against Germany with an invasion through France. 2. Battle of Kursk – British opposed an invasion in 1942, though FDR said Allies would – – comply with Stalin’s wishes American supplies were not ready when 1943 Battle of Kursk began Soviet army had 860, 000 casualties; agreement reached among Big Three to open a second front in early 1944 Winter of 1942– 1943, Battle of Stalingrad stopped the German advance into the USSR North Africa and Italy; Allies finally took Rome in June 1944, fighting in northern Italy continued into May 1945.
IV. Fighting and Winning the War B. The War in Europe 1. D-Day – Invasion of France on June 6, 1944 – led by General Dwight Eisenhower; terrible casualties at Normandy beaches – liberated Paris in August 1944; subsequent bombing of Hamburg and Dresden killed 305, 000 civilians and soldiers, with hundreds of thousands injured – Germans attempted an offensive in Belgium (Battle of the Bulge) during winter of 1944, effort failed; Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945; surrender occurred May 7. 2. The Holocaust – Allied troops opened the extermination camps in the spring of 1945; 6 million Jews and a combined 6 million Poles, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals, and “undesirables” had been killed – mass circulation of images shocked the world; widespread anti. Semitism had kept the United States from aiding Jewish refugees during the war years; only 21, 000 Jews entered United States during World War II.
IV. Fighting and Winning the War C. The War in the Pacific 1. Naval victories – May 1942, the U. S. Navy did not fare well in the Pacific – crippled at Pearl Harbor, surrendered in the Philippines, Bataan “death march” killed 10, 000 American POWs – Battle of the Coral Sea and Battle of Midway were important victories – early in 1945 victory appeared to be in sight though the death toll in the Pacific was horrendous (13, 000 Marines were killed on the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa). 2. Racial overtones – Anti-Asian sentiment was rampant in the U. S.
IV. Fighting and Winning the War D. The Atomic Bomb and the End of the War 1. Manhattan Project – Scientists at the University of Chicago produced first controlled atomic chain reaction in 1942 – persuaded FDR to develop an atomic weapon, believing the Germans to be working on the same; project cost $2 billion and employed 120, 000 people – purpose of project was hidden from Congress, the public, and even Vice President Truman; bomb was successfully tested on July 16, 1945. 2. Hiroshima and Nagasaki – Truman ordered the bomb to be used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and 9), arguing that the Japanese would not surrender until their country was devastated and believing that an invasion of Japan would result in horrible casualties for the U. S. military – Truman wanted to surprise Stalin, but he already knew of the weapon because of spies; Japan surrendered on August 10.
IV. Fighting and Winning the War E. The Toll of the War 1. Human Casualties – Worldwide, more than 50 million soldiers and civilians were killed, approximately 2. 5 percent of the world’s population – Holocaust killed 6 million European Jews; 100 million additional soldiers and civilians were wounded; 30 million people were rendered homeless. 2. Economic and political transformations – Hundreds of cities were bombed and some (Dresden, Warsaw, Hamburg, and Hiroshima) were nearly obliterated – industrial infrastructures of Germany and Japan were ruined – Britain was no longer a world power; African and Asian countries became determined to end colonialism.
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