ISSUE 3 GERMANY AN EVALUATION OF THE OBSTACLES

ISSUE 3 GERMANY AN EVALUATION OF THE OBSTACLES TO GERMAN UNIFICATION, 1815– 50

OVERVIEW ISSUES 1 -3 • GERMANY- SEPARATE • NAPOLEON- 400 STATES- 39 (CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE) • NAPOLEON GONE- BUND • AUSTRIA- ANTRI NATIONALIST • PRUSSIA- POWERFUL FREDRICK WILHELM(FR) • 1848 REVOLUTION- DESIRE FOR CHANGE. RESULT FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT, FR TO LEAD- DISPUTES. CRUMBLE. OLD PRINCES RETURN TO POWER. • ERFURT UNION- FR TRIES TO HEAD UP A UNITED GERMANY. AUSTRIA SAYS NO, FR BACKS DOWN AT THE TREATY OF OLMUTZ.

FACTORS • • Divisions among the nationalists; Austrian strength; German princes; religious differences; economic differences; indifference of the masses; resentment towards Prussia. Other countries MOST OF THESE SHOULD ALREADY BE FAMILIAR

DIVISIONS AMONG THE NATIONALISTS (V IMPORTANT)

INTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM • 3 Divisions within Nationalists • • • Gross or Klein Deutschland? Monarchy or Republic? Who would be the monarch? How would they create a Republic ? Who could vote? What would be in the constitution? All these issues had to be agreed on and caused argument and indecision

THE 1848 REVOLUTION Why did political nationalism fail to unite Germany in 1848/49? • Revolutions relatively ineffective – no sweeping changes made • Monarchs not overthrown • Armies remained loyal to monarchs – especially in Prussia • Reforms granted by monarchs were easily reversed. • FW IV refused the crown of united Germany. • Klein. D decision disgruntled Austria • Frankfurt Assembly took too long to make decisions about issues they disagreed on. • Lack of clarity, purpose and strong leadership among nationalists and liberals • Lack of power from below to unify.

TASK • Make a mind map of all the things the Nationalists were divided on. • • • Gross or Klein Deutschland? Monarchy or Republic? Who would be the monarch? How would they create a Republic ? Who could vote? What would be in the constitution? • Importance- This is a big obstacle, if the Nationalists are not united then even without the other obstacles they would struggle to unite the people. • EVIDENCE IS 1848 REVOLUTION

AUSTRIAN STRENGTH (V IMPORTANT!)

EXTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM 1. Austrian opposition/Prince Metternich If Kleindeutschland created Austria feared Prussia would become a rival power in the north. If Grossdeutschland created, Austria feared it would get drawn into German affairs with no benefits Metternich (Austrian Chancellor) was very conservative, anti nationalist, anti unification because threat these posed to the unity of the Austrian empire whose wealth and power lay with the Hapsburgs, Metternich’s employer!

AUSTRIAN OPPOSITION • Prince Metternich (The Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs) was strongly opposed to German nationalism and was personally an major obstacle to the unification of Germany, as Austria was one of the leading German states and Austria held the Presidency of the Bund. • Metternich was a conservative and therefore strongly opposed to liberal ideas. Most German nationalists at this time were also liberals. • QUOTE‘We will not let our power slip in Germany. A strong united Germany would not be so easy to control. It is in our interests to keep the identity of Germany divided. ’ (Metternich, 185) • • Metternich regarded the demands for nationalism and liberalism as ‘dark, evil forces’. He regarded the university students as a potential danger, as they moved around and could spread these ideas which many of them supported. • • Therefore he passed the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819 which : • Abolished student societies and unions • Censored newspapers • Prevented students expelled from one university from going to another, And in 1832, the Six Articles which permitted intervention in states threatened with constitutional demands. Note the power and influence of Austria (and Metternich) in affairs at this time. • * Carlsbad as evidence*

AUSTRIAN OPPOSITION (CONTD. ) • The Austrians were keen to keep a ‘lid’ on nationalist sentiment in the German states, as, if it was left unchecked, nationalism could lead to the disintegration of Austria’s vast empire in south-east Europe. • If a Kleindeutschland was created, Austria would be excluded from German affairs. • It was, therefore, very much in Austrian interests to maintain the status-quo (i. e. the Bund).

REPRESSIVE MEASURES • Metternich’s work to repress liberalism and nationalism – Carlsbad Decrees + Six Acts • Mc. Kichan - The Carlsbad Decrees certainly succeeded in keeping Germany quiet for a considerable period of time • Treaty of Olmutz 1850 – re-established the Bund – huge disappointment for the liberals and nationalists

AUSTRIA AS AN OBSTACLE • Nationalism a threat to multi ethnic empire of Austria – therefore Austria determined to curb nationalism • Violently anti-nationalist • Chairmanship of the Bund given permanently to Austria • Aim of confederation to divide and keep states independent – Article 2 • Mitchell - The Bund was more a means to perpetuate the division of Germany (than to unite it) • Carr – He (Metternich) had no doubt that demands for freedom would inevitably lead to the destruction of the Austrian Habsburg Empire

SUMMARY YOU WOULD MENTION: • Why Austria Hated Nationalism • Carlsbad Decrees (Evidence) • Olmutz (Evidence) • VERY IMPORTANT AS THIS HELPED PREVENT REVOLUTION FROM BELOW (1848) AND REVOLUTION FROM ABOVE (OLMUTZ)

EXAMPLE INFO • Nationalism and liberalism were two political philosophies that usually went hand-in-hand at this time. The arch-conservative Austrian Chancellor Prince Metternich was very much aware of the dangers of such philosophies. Nationalism, if allowed to spread unchecked, could potentially lead to the disintegration of the vast Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was also keen to ensure that Austria would not be excluded from German affairs by the creation of some sort of Kleindeutschland. There are several clear instances of Austrian opposition to German nationalism; the two most important coming in 1819 and 1850. • In 1819 the Austrians passed the notorious Carlsbad Decrees which effectively suppressed the student Burschenscaften which had been flourishing in German universities since the end of the Napoleonic Wars. These nationalist organisations had been responsible for nothing more serious than a few demonstrations and the burning of an effigy of Metternich at Wartburg in 1817. However, Metternich recognised the spirit of these organisations and was quick to deal with it when given the excuse in 1819 when the member of one of the Burschenshaften murdered the anti-liberal writer and Tsarist agent Kotzebue. The Carsbad Decrees, as F. Mc. Kichan stated effectively suppressed German nationalism ‘for a generation’. • In 1850, after recovering from the revolutions of 1848 -49 the new Austrian Chancellor Scwartzernburg forced the Prussians to accept the ‘humiliation’ of the Treaty of Olmutz. This meant that the Efrurt Union – a Prussian-led attempt to replace the Bund and unite the German states on the terms of their rulers was abandoned. Thus it is clear that while Austria remained strong the prospects for the unification of the German states were slim. Before 1850 opposition from Austria was definitely the main stumbling block for German nationalists in their attempts to unite the German states.

GERMAN PRINCES

INTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM • 1. Various Rulers • The influence of the privileged members of the ruling classes in the German states. (the “ancien regime”) • The aristocrats who ruled the 39 German states had to defend the system to ensure their own survival. Each state had sovereign powers over its laws, taxes and armed forces.

THE OTHER INDIVIDUAL STATES • Austria influenced the other states - the leaders of each state were encouraged to keep the status quo and obstructed unity • Leaders protective of their individual powers Article 2 of the Act of Confederation - 'The aim of this confederation shall be the maintenance of the external and internal security of Germany as well as the independence of the individual German states‘ Mc. Kichan - The way in which the confederation worked was designed to make it difficult for it to develop into a united Germany Mc. Kichan – To keep the dark forces of nationalism at bay, Metternich relied on the prestige of Austria and the goodwill and co-operation of the German princes

SQA • The leaders of the German states obstructed unification – protective of their individual power and position. They wanted to maintain the status quo which would safeguard this for them. • • Particularism of the various German states – autonomous and parochial in many ways. • • Self-interest among German rulers led to opposition to the actions at Frankfurt. • *EVIDNCE*- Getting rid of Frankfurt Parliament

IMPORTANCE • Important as stopped revolution from above • BUT even if they HAD helped this would have been shot down by Austria e. g Olmutz.

RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES NOT VERY IMPORTANT

INTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM • 2. Religious differences • Protestant Prussia and North German States • Catholic South German States and much of Austria against

• Religious Divisions – the states divided between north and south on religious grounds. Northern states Protestant > looked to Prussia for help, Southern states Catholic > looked to Austria for help. A divisive force

EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH/ • The loyalty of the Protestant northern German states historically was to Protestant Prussia and the loyalty of the Catholic southern German states was to Catholic Austria. Thus, it was more than just religion that divided the German states. The tension and rivalry that existed between the two largest German states exacerbated the existing religious divisions and made the possibility of unification more problematic. • An indication of how strong the traditional cultural and religious ties between the southern Catholic states and Austria were came in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Before 1850, however, whilst the religious division in the German states was clearly an obstacle to any future unification, there were other far more important factors – not least of all being the opposition of Austria to any form of unification.

IMPORTANCE • NOT VERY- Couldn’t unite or dissuade Germany. Before 1850, however, whilst the religious division in the German states was clearly an obstacle to any future unification, there were other far more important factors – not least of all being the opposition of Austria to any form of unification.

ECONOMIC DIFFERENCES; MIDDLING IMPORTANCE

ECONOMIC FACTORS • FROM 2014 past paper mark scheme • The smaller states of the West had more advanced economies than the Prussian heartlands, where political reading was confined largely to the upper class. • • Even within Prussia there were significant social differences between the industrially advanced territories on the Rhine and the largely agricultural areas in the East, which were dominated by the Junkers (although less so than in the 18 th century), who were adversely affected by the agricultural depression of the 1820 s. • PUT THIS INTO YOUR OWN WORDS!

IMPORTANCE • Not as important as other factors, • Even if this hadn't divided them Austria still would have, as would have the other Nationalist divisions.

INDIFFERENCE OF THE MASSES; QUITE IMPORTANT

INTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM • Limited appeal of the nationalists Despite the economic and social changes between 1815 and 1862 Germany remained an area where local loyalties remained important for a mainly rural population. Nationalism only appealed to literate people – the growing urban middle classes-”talkers and dreamers with no real plan of action” (Mc. Kichan) The peasants and the new urban working classes were not educated enough to see any advantages for them in nationalism.

LIMITED APPEAL OF NATIONALISM • • • A middle class movement with little interest from the w/c Many people had other priorities Most Germans had little desire to see a united Germany No consensus among the nationalists on defining Germany – Klein v Gross Lack of clear aims and no united army Lack of clear leadership Revolutionaries in 1848 at odd with each other – the workers and the employers Mc. Kichan – Most historians agree that these ideas were held by relatively limited numbers of educated town dwellers Stiles “Liberalism and nationalism remained largely middleclass before 1848” Mc. Kichan “ the events of 1848 and 1850 seemed to show that German nationalism was too weak and divided to ahchieve its aims by pressure from below”.

IMPORTANCE • Important as stopped w/class getting involved so stopped revolution from below (the potential power of which could be seen in 1848 Rev) • HOWEVER EVEN if this had existed Austria would shoot down any attempt at Nationalism AND The Divisions of Nationalists would lead to failure. i. e Frankfurt Parliament

RESENTMENT TOWARDS PRUSSIA QUITE IMPORTANT

INTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM • Fear of Prussian domination and military • Largest state of German states. • Becoming more industrial, and rebuilding military strength after French occupation. • A dominant political voice in the Bund. Wants to extend its own power, not really interested in unification, rather ‘prussification’.

OTHER COUNTRIES

OTHER EUROPEAN POWERS • Other European powers opposed a united Germany and the growth of nationalism • France, Russia and Britain all feared unity and the prospect of a strong opponent • The German states had proved weak when they were divided – that suited others

EXTERNAL OBSTACLES TO GERMAN NATIONALISM 2. Opposition from other countries French opposed a united Germany because it could be a new European power on her border which could expand west. Russia also opposed for same reason as France but for expansion east. Either way it could upset the balance of power

SUMMARY

SUMMARY Q’S- OBSTACLES TO UNIFICATION Turn to p. 102 (BLUE). Answer these questions in your own words. p. 2 (Gold) and (Gold) p. 23 -29 1. What does Mitchell’s quote mean? 2. Why does Mitchel think this? Read the paragraph on p. 102 and p. 103 to help you. 3. Read p. 103 Who did the Catholic states look to for protection? 4. Explain Kleinedeuschland grossdeutschland in your own words. 5. P. 104 (blue)Which 3 countries did not want a united Germany? 6. P. 105(blue) Why was France against a united Germany

SUMMARY OF OBSTACLES TO UNITY Six Acts, 1832 Reinforced the Carlsbad Decrees, gave more powers to individual states to crush nationalism France, Britain and Russia against unity – a united Germany would be a security threat and also a strong economic competitor Austria and Metternich – violently anti nationalist stance, Austrian empire felt threatened by unity Carlsbad Decrees 1819 Newspaper censored, student societies banned, inspectors into universities, professors sacked Repressive Measures Obstacles to Unity 1815 -50 Dividing forces Religious divisions between north and south Article 2 of the Confederation stated that it’s aim was to keep the states separate The Bund / Confederation The 39 leaders were against unity Ant-nationalist Austria at the helm of the bund ensured unity was repressed

BY 1850, GERMANY WAS STILL NOT UNIFIED FORCES REPRESSING UNITY- CHECKLIST • • The Confederation / Bund The 39 leaders Austria + Metternich Carlsbad Decrees 1819/ Six Acts 1832 Religious Divisions – North + South Other European powers No consensus on defining Germany – Klein v Gross

IMPORTANCE. • • Divisions among the nationalists; Austrian strength; German princes; religious differences; economic differences; indifference of the masses; resentment towards Prussia. Other countries • Put these factors in order of importance and ensure you have reasons for your choice.

ARGUMENT • Austrian strength Carr – He (Metternich) had no doubt that demands for freedom would inevitably lead to the destruction of the Austrian Habsburg Empire 1848 revolution was only possible due to Austria’s engagement in her Empire’s affairs. This shows how big an obstacle she is, but also that she is not a constant • Repressive Measures Not as important as it was only the liberals and intellectuals it affected. Mc. Kichan - The Carlsbad Decrees certainly succeeded in keeping Germany quiet for a considerable period of time. • Individual states (German princes and religious differences) Mc. Kichan – To keep the dark forces of nationalism at bay, Metternich relied on the prestige of Austria and the goodwill and co-operation of the German princes Gorman- The rulers of the separate states of the confederation did not want to surrender their powers to a higher authority. Consequently the small, but growing, middle class made little headway • European powers Less important despite these issues it was the fact that Germany herself was not united in her aims rather than others stopping her that prevented unification. Gorman- it suited the purpose of the Great Powers to keep Germany divided. • Weakness of Nationalism Important- Without a widespread movement there was not support to attack the other obstacles. 1848 shows that no matter how strong other factors were without AN ORGANISED Nationalist campaign nationalism WOULD NOT HAPPEN. Mc. Kichan – Most historians agree that these ideas were held by relatively limited numbers of educated town dwellers Stiles “Liberalism and nationalism remained largely middle-class before 1848” Carr-the diverse personalities of liberal leaders hindered the growth of a unified movement

IMPORTANCE • Austrian strength MOST IMPORTANT- WOULD CRUSH REVOLUTION FROM ABOVE OR BELOW (1848 REV/OLMUTZ). • Divisions among the nationalists- it meant that no matter how many attempts there were at unity the Nationalists would always fail if they did not fix this e. g Frankfurt Parliament • Indifference of the masses- Prevented Nationalism from below an prevented a pressure which would have helped change those in power’s minds. • German Princes- Prevented a Revolution from above however most were not powerful enough alone to enact this and the one attempt at this (Erfurt) was crushed by Austria. • Resentment towards Prussia- would affect chances of both a revolution from above or below (remember not all the states joined the Erfurt Union) however not enough to make a major change e. g the 1848 Rev had happened despite this • Economic Differences- Not that important if the other obstacles were not there these could have been overcome • religious differences; Not that important, if the other obstacles were not there these could have been overcome. • Other countries- Not that important, Britain France etc did not seem likely to do anything about it so who cared if they didn’t like it!!!!

EXAMPLE INTRODUCTIONS • Nationalism is the desire of a people with a common language, culture and traditions to be united in their own state with their own ruler. Between 1815, the year the Napoleonic Wars ended, and 1850 the German states experienced a growth of nationalism and desire for unity. However, by 1850 the German states were still not united. , despite two attempts at doing so in 1848 and 1849. Historians have since debated what the obstacles to unification were. Some argue that the religious divisions in Germany were the main obstacle to unification. Others suggest that the opposition from Austria was more important, or that the individual rulers’ fear of losing power played a vital part. This essay will establish that, while religious division was an important factor, the opposition from Austria and the rulers were more important. • Between 1815 and 1850 there had been two real attempts to unify Germany, however, both of these failed. Germany was still composed of 39 states as it had been in 1815. Although nationalism had grown, it was not successful by 1850. Religious divisions between the German states were one of the many obstacles to German unification, however they were certainly not the most important. Austrian opposition was the largest obstacle to German unification, closely followed by divisions amongst nationalists. Other reasons included the lack of a wide support base, economic divisions and opposition from rulers of states.

FACTORS • • Divisions among the nationalists; Austrian strength; German princes; religious differences; economic differences; indifference of the masses; resentment towards Prussia. Other countries • On the next slides are examples of how you could group them together for an essay THOUGH YOU ARE ALSO FREE TO KEEP THEM SEPARATE.

EXAMPLE ESSAY PLAN INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND TO NATIONALISM 1. German states and Prussia 2. Opposition from Leaders 3. Austrian strength 4. Weakness of nationalism 5. Attitude of foreign states CONLUSION

FACTORS GROUPED TOGETHER • GERMANYS INTERNAL DIVISIONS (religious differences/resentment towards Prussia/ economic differences • WEAKNESS OF NATIONALISM (Divisions among the nationalists/indifference of the masses) • LACK OF SUPPORT FROM LEADERS(German princes/Other countries) • AUSTRIAN STRENGTH

WHY DID NATIONALISM FAIL TO UNITE THE GERMAN STATES BEFORE 1850/ WHAT WERE THE OBSTACLES TO GERMAN UNIFICATION BEFORE 1850 DO THE named FACTOR FIRST. WEIGH UP THE FACTORS AS YOU GO ALONG – DON’T WAIT TILL THE CONLUSION TO COMPARE THE FACTORS TO EACH OTHER IN TERMS OF THEIR IMPORTANCE. 1. Intro – SEAF start date – 1815, end of Napoleonic war/creation of Deutscher Bund, end date – 1850, still no united German state, Germany failed to unify for several reasons …… (Put them in an explained LIST) REST OF THE MAIN PART IS MADE UP OF ALL THE OBSTACLES TO GERMAN UNIFICATION. MOST OF THESE PARAGRAPHS WILL BE SHORT. THE MOST IMPORTANT ONES ARE MARKED WITH A *. DO NOT MISS THESE ONES OUT! 2. German Princes/Rulers of German states Opposed to unification as would lose influence/power Particularism – loyalty to individual states 3. Religious divisions Protestant north/Catholic south 4. Nationalism limited to middle-classes and intellectuals Use Burschenschaften Wartburg/Hambach as an example. 5. Economic divisions Despite the Zollverein German states still economically diverse and divided. 6. Resentment of Prussia Resentment of Protestant Prussia from Catholic southern states loyal to Catholic Austria, Resentment of growing Prussian economic strength and later military strength. *7. Divisions amongst the nationalists Kleindeutschland/Grossdeutschland, monarchy/republic, democracy? Nationalists themselves couldn’t agree on what a united Germany should be like. Use failure of Frankfurt as an example of this. *8. Austrian Opposition Why Austrians (and Metternich especially) happy to keep states divided. Conservatives like Metternich scared of nationalism ad went hand in hand with liberalism. Use Carlsbad Decrees and Olmutz as examples of when Austrian opposition quashed nationalism. 9. Conclusion Which factor/s was/were most important and why? WEIGH UP the factors one by one – finish with the one that you think was most important. Include a good quote if you can. •

HISTORIOGRAPHY Every essay needs some historiography – use of quotes which are explained and back up the points you mention (hand out of historians and example essay also available)

HISTORIOGRAPHY Mitchell - The Bund was more a means to perpetuate the division of Germany (than to unite it) Article 2 of the Act of Confederation - 'The aim of this confederation shall be the maintenance of the external and internal security of Germany as well as the independence of the individual German states‘ Mc. Kichan - The way in which the confederation worked was designed to make it difficult for it to develop into a united Germany Carr – He (Metternich) had no doubt that demands for freedom would inevitably lead to the destruction of the Austrian Habsburg Empire Carr-the diverse personalities of liberal leaders hindered the growth of a unified movement Carr- Under Metternich Press censorship and a secret police repressed what interest there was in political change.

HISTORIOGRAPHY Mc. Kichan - The Carlsbad Decrees certainly succeeded in keeping Germany quiet for a considerable period of time Mc. Kichan – To keep the dark forces of nationalism at bay, Metternich relied on the prestige of Austria and the goodwill and co-operation of the German princes Mc. Kichan – Most historians agree that these ideas were held by relatively limited numbers of educated town dwellers Gorman- it suited the purpose of the Great Powers to keep Germany divided. Gorman- The rulers of the separate states of the confederation did not want to surrender their powers to a higher authority. Consequently the small, but growing, middle class made little headway

USE 2014 MARK SCHEME TO WRITE PLAN

To what extent was resentment towards Prussia among the German states the main obstacle to German unification by 1850? OR Austrian strength was the greatest obstacle to German nationalism between 1815 – 1850. How accurate is this view?

• • • • • • • • • The candidate evaluates the validity of the view that the German princes were the most important obstacle to German unification before 1850, using evidence and arguments such as: Attitude of the German princes • The leaders of the German states obstructed unification – protective of their individual power and position. They wanted to maintain the status quo which would safeguard this for them. • Particularism of the various German states – autonomous and parochial in many ways. • Self-interest among German rulers led to opposition to the actions at Frankfurt. Other factors Divisions among the nationalists • Nationalists were divided over which territory should be included in any united Germany; grossdeutsch and kleindeutsch arguments. • Failure of the Frankfurt Parliament – lack of clear aims and without an armed force to enforce its decisions. Lack of decisive leadership. Divisions among the ‘revolutionaries’ regarding aims and objectives. Austrian strength • The states within ‘Germany’ had been part of the moribund Holy Roman Empire, traditionally ruled by the Emperor of Austria. • Post-1815 the chairmanship of the Bund was given to Austria on a permanent basis, partly as she was considered to be the major German power. • Metternich’s work – to oppose liberalism and nationalism. His use of the weapons of diplomacy and threats of force. Use of the police state, repression and press censorship. Smaller German states were in awe of the power and position of the Austrian Empire. Austrian control over the administration and management of the empire, stamping authority on the Bund. Karlsbad Decrees and the Six Articles. • Post-1815 Austrian military strength and bureaucracy continued to decline in effectiveness; shift in balance of power between Austria and Prussia, but not apparent till the 1850 s. • Treaty of Olmutz, 1850 – signalled the triumph of Austria and humiliation of Prussia. German nationalism was now a spent force apparently. Religious differences • Religion – northern German states were mostly Protestant and southern states mainly Catholic; thus the north looked to Prussia for help and protection while the south looked to Austria. Economic differences • The smaller states of the West had more advanced economies than the Prussian heartlands, where political reading was confined largely to the upper class. • Even within Prussia there were significant social differences between the industrially advanced territories on the Rhine and the largely agricultural areas in the East, which were dominated by the Junkers (although less so than in the 18 th century), who were adversely affected by the agricultural depression of the 1820 s. Indifference of the masses • Popular apathy – most Germans had little desire to see a united Germany; nationalism affected mainly the educated / business classes. • Lack of coincidence between political boundaries and ethnic / linguistic ones. • However, politically based literature and propaganda also reached the masses, helping to bond their ideals and strengthen their resolve for both reform and unification. Resentment towards Prussia • Smaller states, particularly in the south, resented the economic and political predominance of Prussia. • There was a reluctance to accept unification within the Prussian state, which had a significant non-German population and which contained a large conservative/ reactionary landed class. Attitudes of other foreign states • France had been able to dominate central Europe for centuries due to its lack of unity. Although most of Germany had been united by Napoleon into the Confederation of the Rhine, it was not in French interests for Germany to be united, particularly as that would present a barrier to France achieving a frontier on the Rhine.

ISSUES 1 -3 We have studied Issues 1 -3 so far and all essays are either Issue 1, 2 or 3 You need to be able to identify which issue an essay is so you know how to answer it Issue 1 Issue 2 Issue 3

EXAMPLE ESSAYS • To what extent was there a growth of nationalism between 1815 – 1850? • ‘By 1850 the German nationalists had made significant progress in their aims’. How valid is this view? • How important were cultural factors in the growth of a German national consciousness between 1815 – 1850? • Austrian strength was the greatest obstacle to German nationalism between 1815 – 1850. How accurate is this view? • How important were economic factors in the growth of nationalism between 1815 -50? • How important were the other European powers as an obstacle to unity?

EXAMPLE ESSAYS To what extent was there a growth of nationalism between 1815 – 1850? Issue 2 ‘By 1850 the German nationalists had made significant progress in their aims’. How valid is this view? Issue 2 How important were cultural factors in the growth of a German national consciousness between 1815 – 1850? Issue 1 Austrian strength was the greatest obstacle to German nationalism between 1815 – 1850. How accurate is this view? Issue 3 How important were economic factors in the growth of nationalism between 1815 -50? Issue 1 How important were the other European powers as an obstacle to unity? Issue 3